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Hindus are blessed
by a noble virtue that other religions should emulate, particularly the
Christian and Islam. Hindus feel that it is worse than impolite the try to
persuade another person that they should change their religious beliefs.
Proselytizing is bad manners. Until recently, a Hindu would not put down
someone else's religion. They feel that each one of us must find our own
relationship to the spirit of God. As globalization accelerates all other
religions should adopt this ethic. Much unnecessary friction would be
minimized as population pressures challenge privacy and the right to be
let alone. The MeetingHouse praises the Hindu religion for this good
example in life. This very old religion has many sects. The range is from popular Hindu beliefs to that of elaborate rituals especially for chanting. Memorizing and chanting are fundamental to the practice of this religions that is so popular even dominant in India. The MeetingHouse calls for Hindus to produce and distribute universal DVDs of some of their chanting to enable other religions to better understand the spirit of the millions of devout Hindus. Hinduism's has many stages of transition and varieties of coexistence (Karma). Magic rites, animal worship, and belief in demons are combined with worship of more personal gods or with mysticism, and asceticism. This most ancient religion is abstract and profound and there are esoteric doctrines. The worship of local deities does not exclude the belief in pan-Indian higher gods. It is most unfortunate that the vast majority of Christians and Muslims fail to understand that for many Hindus, today, there is a single high God. The local deities are quite often looked upon as manifestations of a high God. (See Mahatma Gandhi's prayers, below, for more insight) It is suggested that the closest set of universal Hindu doctrines are the five "Yamas" or abstentions somewhat similar to the Ten Commandments of Christianity in their importance they are:
Hindu temples have no standard rituals such as Catholic Mass or the Friday Prayer of Islam. However, there is a common practice of delivering food to the temple as a sacrifice, then sharing that food with the community. It is an indication of the world respect for Hinduism that at the dedication of the new very large Hindu Temple in Delhi all religions such as the Jains, Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, Hebrews, Taoists joined Prime Ministers in dedicating the beautiful temple. Hindus are
inclined to revere the Divine in every manifestation. They are, generally,
doctrinal tolerant, allowing others, including both Hindus and non-Hindus,
whatever beliefs suit them best. This is hard for most Christians and
Muslims to understand because those faiths believe they have the only true
path to God. The proselytizing of those faiths too often offends the
tolerant Hindus. Tragically, such proselytizing has been on the increase
to the dismay of many Hindus. To Hindus the core of all religion does not depend on the existence or nonexistence of God or on whether there is one god or many. The Divine is more abstract. Religious truth is said to transcend all verbal definition. It is not conceived in dogmatic terms. Hindus tend to distinguish themselves from others on the basis of practice rather than doctrine (orthodoxy). This emphasis on how one lives further de-emphasizes doctrinal differences. It would be wise if the religious leaders of others major religions would encourage their followers to adopt this critically important world view at this time of global unrest.
The defining
characteristic of Hindu beliefs may be the recognition of the Veda, the
most ancient body of religious literature, as an absolute authority
revealing fundamental and unassailable truths. The Veda, meaning "Knowledge," is a
collective term for sacred scriptures of the Hindus. Since about the 5th
century BCE, the Veda has been considered to be the creation of neither
human nor god. Instead, it is regarded as the eternal Truth that was long
ago revealed to or "heard" by gifted and inspired seers (rishis) who
transcribed it into the most perfect human language, Sanskrit. Although
most of the religion arising fromthe Vedic texts revolves around rituals of fire
sacrifice, it is the absolute authority. Sacredness of the Veda remains a
central tenet of virtually all Hindu sects and traditions. Even today, as
it has been for several millennia, parts of the Veda are memorized and
recited as a religious act of great merit. This is true even though Hindu
doctrines and practices seem to overwrite it. The most important
texts are the four collections: (Sahitas) known as the Veda or Vedas
(i.e., "Book[s] of Knowledge"), All other works, in which the actual
doctrines and practices of Hindus are encoded, are recognized as having
been composed by human authors and are thus classed as Smriti ( Sm?ti;
"Remembered"). The categorization of Veda, however, is capable of
elasticity. The Sruti is not exactly closed; Upanishads, for example, have
been composed until recent times. For Hindus, the Veda is a symbol of
unchallenged authority and tradition. Generally speaking, Vedic gods share
many characteristics: several of them (Indra, Varian, and Vishnu) are said
to have created the universe, set the Sun in the sky, and propped apart
heaven and Earth. All of them are bright and shining, and all are
susceptible to human praise. Some major gods were clearly personifications
of natural phenomena, and for these deities no clearly delineated divine
personalities were perceived. The three most frequently invoked
gods are Indra, Agni, and Soma. Indra, the foremost god of the Vedic
pantheon, is a god of war and rain. Agni (a cognate of the Latin ignis) is
the deified fire, particularly the fire of sacrifice, and Soma is the
intoxicating or hallucinogenic drink of the sacrifice, or the plant from
which it is pressed; neither is greatly personified. [Some scholars believe
it was an extract from Psilocybin mushrooms. But the formulae has been long
lost.] The Vedic texts
generally regarded the universe as three layers of "worlds" ( loka):
heaven, atmosphere, and Earth. Heaven - is that part of the universe where
the sun shines and is correlated with sun, fire, and ether. In addition to this tripartite
pattern, there is also an ancient notion of duality, in which Heaven is
masculine or father and Earth is feminine and mother. Later texts present
the conception that combinations and permutations of five elements
(ether-space [akasa], wind [vayu], fire [Agni], water [apas], and earth
[bhumi]) formed the universe. The principal focus of Vedic
literature is the sacrifice, which in its simplest form can be viewed as a
ritualized banquet to which a god is invited to partake of a meal shared
by the sacrificer and his priest. The invocations mention, often casually,
the past exploits of the deity. The offered meal gives strength to the
deity to repeat his feat and to aid the sacrificer. Among other Vedic gods, only a few
stand out. One is Vishnu, important perhaps more in retrospect than in
fact. He is famous for his "three strides," with which he traversed the
universe, thus creating and possessing it. In his later mythology this
pervasiveness, which invites identification with other gods, remains
characteristic. His function as helper to the conqueror-god Indra is
important. In the course of the Vedic period Prajapati came
to the fore as the creator god, and, in many respects as the highest divinity.
He is the immortal father even of the gods, whom he transcends, encompasses,
and molds into one complex. As the One, the concentrated All,
or Totality, Prajapati was identified with the highest and most
general categories. By a process of emanation and self-differentiation (by
dividing himself), he created all beings and the universe. After
this "creation,"Prajapati became disintegrated and differentiated as the totality
of all of the phenomenal world and was exhausted. By means of a rite, he then reintegrated himself
to prepare for a new phase or cycle of creativity. Because the
purpose of the sacred act is the restitution of the organic structural
norm, which ensures the ordered functioning of the universe, Prajapati was
identified with the rite. Thus, by identifying himself with Prajapati, a
sacrificer may temporarily reintegrate within himself what has been
disintegrated, thereby restoring oneness and totality in himself and the
universe. The religion
reflected in the Rig-Veda is
a polytheism mainly concerned with the propitiation of divinities associated
with the sky and the atmosphere. Of these, the more important
were such gods as Indra, Varua (guardian of the cosmic order), Agni (the
sacrificial fire), and Surya (the Sun). The main ritual activity referred to in the Rig-Veda is the soma sacrifice. Soma
was a hallucinogenic beverage prepared from a now-unknown plant. As
stated, recently it has been suggested that the plant was a mushroom and that
later another plant was substituted for the agaric's fungus, which had become
difficult to obtain. The Rig-Veda contains a few clear references to animal
sacrifice, which probably became more widespread later. There is some doubt whether the priests formed
a separate class of society during the early Rig Vedic period. By
the end of the period, however, they had become a separate class of specialists,
the Brahmans (Brahmaas), who claimed superiority over all the other
social classes which included the Rajanyas (later Katriyas) or the
warrior-kings. The Rig-Veda contains little about birth
rituals, but the rites of marriage and disposal of the dead continued
basically the same as in later Hinduism. Marriage was an indissoluble
bond cemented by a lengthy and solemn ritual centering on the domestic
hearth. The funeral rites of the rich included cremation. An interesting
reference in one hymn shows that the wife of the dead man lay down
beside him on the funeral pyre, but was called upon to return to the land
of the living before it was lighted. This variant may have been a survival
from an earlier period when the wife was actually cremated with the
husband. The custom was revived in later times. Among other features of Rig Vedic religious
life were the minis. The main one was apparently a sort of shaman (a
religious personage having healing and psychic transformation powers) who
was trained in various magic arts and believed to be capable of
supernatural feats, such as levitation. These ideas developed into the
Hindu god Siva, and his prestige increased steadily. The same is true of
Vishnu, a minor solar deity in the Rig-Veda, who later became one of the
most important and popular divinities of Hinduism. One of the favorite myths of the Aryans
was one that attributed the origin of the cosmos to the god Indra, after
he had slain the great dragon Vtra. This myth is very similar to one
known in early Mesopotamia. With time, such tales were replaced by
abstract theories reflected in several hymns of the Rig-Veda. These
speculative tendencies were the beginnings of a persistent effort of
Indian philosophers to reduce all things to a single basic principle.
The Atharvaveda
stands apart from other Vedic texts. It contains both hymns and prose
passages and is divided into 20 books. Attached to each Sahita was a collection
of explanations of the rituals, called a Brahmaa. Mythology was
relied on to trace the origins and importance of individual ritual acts.
Although they were not manuals or handbooks in the manner of the later
Srauta Sutras, the Brahmaas do contain details about the performance
and meaning of Vedic sacrificial rituals and as such are valuable
sources about the Vedic religion. In these texts the sacrifice is the very
center of cosmic processes, human concerns, and religious desires and
goals as well. It is through the sacrifice that the cosmos continues in
its cycles. Human beings obtain the goods of life and a birth in heaven in
the next world by the ritual. The universalization of the dynamics of the
ritual into the dynamics of the cosmos was depicted as the sacrifice of
the primordial deity, Prajapati ("Lord of Creatures"), who was perpetually
regenerated by the sacrifice. For many centuries
Hinduism had belief in the power of the Brahmans, a priestly class
possessing spiritual supremacy by birth. Brahmans are, in theory,
considered to be representatives of the ideal of ritual purity and social
prestige. After World War II the political liberation of the untouchables
and other so-called lower classes along with the globalization of Hinduism
substantially eroded the mystical power of the Brahmans. Hindus believe in an
uncreated, eternal, infinite, transcendent, and all-embracing principle,
which comprises in itself being and non-being.It is the sole reality.This universal
and eternal principle is the ultimate cause and foundation, source,
and goal of all existence. Westerners have come very late to this idea
by way of defining the universe. T he ultimate reality is called Brahman.It is
the "All". The ideal of
Ahimsa is prevalent in Hinduism. Ahimsa, "non-injury" or the absence of
the desire to harm, is regarded by Indian thinkers as one of the keystones
of their ethics. Historically, ahimsa is unrelated to vegetarianism. In
ancient India, killing people in war or in capital punishment and killing
animals in Vedic sacrifices were acceptable to many people who for other
reasons refrained from eating meat. Hindus generally accept the doctrine of
transmigration and rebirth, and, the complementary belief in karma. Karma
causes previous acts to become fateful as the factor that determines the
condition into which a being, after a stay in heaven or hell, is reborn
to Earth in one form or another. (Note: the similarities of karma to
some of the ideas of St;. Augustine - original sin and guilt - and to
Dante's purgatory in the Divine Comedia are obvious) This whole process of rebirths is
called samsara. Any earthly process is viewed as cyclical. All worldly
existence is subject to the cycle. Samsara has no beginning and, in most
cases, no end; it is not a cycle of progress or a process of purification
but a matter of perpetual attachment. Karma, too is cyclical while running
down, it winds itself up, again. It binds the atmans (selves) of human
beings to the world and compels them to go through an endless series of
births and deaths. This belief is indissolubly connected with the
traditional Indian views of society and earthly life. Any social
interaction (particularly those involving sex or food) results in the
mutual exchange of good and bad karma. This belief has given rise to a
further belief that any misfortune is the effect of karma, or one's own
deeds. There is an ancillary conviction that the course of world history
is conditioned by collective karma. (Note: Emperor Constantine and the
Council of Nicea in the fourth century made it a heretical act to believe
in the transmigration of souls. Such belief is still anathema and a cause
for ex-communication from Christianity.) Nevertheless, the belief in
transmigration is widely held by a large majority of humans on this Earth.
Unfortunately,
such doctrines encourage the view that mundane life is not true existence.
This discourages those who would try to pursue happiness and worldly
progress through improvements in everyday life. To the believers in Karma
human endeavor should be directed toward a permanent interruption of the
cycle of karma and transmigration. One is to seek a final emancipation (
moksha). This focus is otherworldly. One is to seek to escape forever from
the impermanence that is an inescapable feature of worldly existence. In
this view the only worthy goal is the one permanent and eternal principle:
the One, God- Brahman. The deity, Brahma,
the creator, remains in the background as the greatest creator. Three
great figures (Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva) constitute the so-called Hindu
Trinity ( Trimurti "the One or Whole with Three Forms"). This conception
attempts to synthesize and harmonize the conviction that the Supreme Power
is a singularity with the plurality of gods experienced in
daily religious worship.The concept of the Trimurti has never become an over
arching living element in the religion of the people. Brahma has had no
major cult since ancient times. Many Hindus worship neither Siva nor
Vishnu but one or more of the innumerable other Hindu gods while generally
accepting the idea of a universal God. Nearly 2,000 years ago, the dharma texts
elaborated the social doctrine of the four ashramas (stages of life).
This concept is an attempt to harmonize the conflicting tendencies of
Hinduism into one system. The ancient texts held that a member of the three
higher classes should first become a chaste student (Brahmacharya); then
become a married householder (grihastha), discharging his debts to his
ancestors by begetting sons and to the gods by sacrificing; then retire
(as a vanaprastha), with or without his wife,. Going to the forest, to
devote himself to spiritual contemplation. Finally, but not mandatory, to
become a homeless wandering ascetic ( sannyasin). The situation of forest
dweller remained problematic (i.e., on the mythological level) and was
often omitted or rejected in practical life. In the West, the
so-called life-negating aspects of Hinduism are too often overemphasized by
those who assume the superiority of their own beliefs. The polarity
of asceticism and sensuality on the one hand, and, on the other
hand,the heartfelt desire to have descendants and continue earthly life,
manifested itself in Hindu social life.The tension between the different goals and
stages of life versus the religious view of reality causes a never ending
dialogue. The relative value of an active life and the performance of
meritorious works (pravtti), as opposed to the renunciation of all worldly
interests and activity ( nivtti) were and continue to be a much-debated
issue. The householder maintains his sacred fire, procreates children, and
performs his rituals of living while the Duties to Hinduism earn him/her
religious merit. Although the status of a householder
was often extolled, there were always people who became wandering ascetics
immediately after studentship. Theorists reconciled these divergent views
and practices by allowing the ascetic way of life to those who are, owing
to the effects of restrained conduct in former lives, entirely free from
worldly desire. The beliefs,
practices, and socio-religious
institutions of the Hindus (originally,
the inhabitants of the land of the Indus River)
were introduced about 1830 by British writers. The use of the term properly
denotes the Indian civilization of approximately the last 2,000 years,
which it is said evolved from Vedism, the religion of the
Indo-European peoples who settled in India in the last centuries of the
2nd millennium BCE.
Because Hinduism
integrates a variety of elements, it constitutes a complex but largely
continuous whole and has religious, social, economic, literary, and artistic aspects. As a
religion, Hinduism is a composite of diverse doctrines, cults, and ways
of life. It encompasses all things and is the Self ( atman) of
all living beings.While one-sided religious and philosophical works,
such as the Upanishads, placed emphasis on renunciation, for the ordinary
Hindu, the main aim of worldly life lies in conforming to social and
ritual duties, to the traditional rules of conduct for one's caste,
family, and profession. Such requirements constitute an individual's
dharma (law and duties), one's own part of the broader stability, law,
order, and fundamental equilibrium in the cosmos, nature, and society.
Sanatana (traditional) dharma,a term
used by Hindus to denote their own religion,is a close approximation to
"religious practices" in the West. This traditional dharma applies
theoretically to all Hindus, but it is superseded by the more particular
dharmas that are appropriate to each of the four major varnas, or classes
of society: The cl;assesare: the Brahmans (priests);
Katriyas (warrior kings); Vaisyas (the common people); and Sudras
(servants). These four rather abstract categories are further superseded
by the practically applied dharmas appropriate to each of the thousands of
particular castes (jatis). Thus, religion for Hindus is mainly a tradition
and a heritage, a way of life and a mode of thought. In practice, it is
the right application of methods for securing both welfare in this life
and a good condition in the hereafter. When the Indo-Europeans, who spoke
Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, entered India in around 1500 BCE, most of
the people they encountered spoke languages that belonged to a major
non-Indo-European linguistic group called Dravidian. These two language groups
interacted from a very early period, and although the earliest preserved
specimens of Sanskrit (themselves dating from a period long after the Indo-Aryan
invasions) far antedate examples of any other languages, there is good reason to
believe that the other languages also produced texts, although unrecorded, at a
very early period. When the devotional aspect of Hinduism came into full flower,
the vernacular traditions both in Dravidian language groups and in languages
derived from Sanskrit began to record their texts and to have a more discernible
influence upon the Sanskrit tradition.
Of the four primary Dravidian
literatures,Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam,the oldest and best-known is
Tamil. The earliest preserved Tamil literature, the so-called Cakam or Sagam
poetry anthologies, dates from the 1st century BCE. These poems are classified by
theme into akam ("interior," primarily love poetry) and puam ("exterior,"
primarily about war, the poverty of poets, and the deaths of kings). The bhakti
movement has been traced to Tamil poetry, beginning with the poems of the
devotees of Siva called Nayaars and the devotees of Vishnu called Aytars. The
Nayaars, who date from about 800 CE, composed intensely personal and devout
hymns addressed to the local manifestations of Siva.
The earliest literary source for the
history of Hinduism is the Rig-Veda, the hymns of which were chiefly composed
during the last two or three centuries of the 2nd
millennium BC. Brahmanism or Vedism, was developed in India among Aryan
invaders.These branch nomadic tribal peoples originally inhabited the steppe
country of southern Russia and Central Asia. They brought with them the
horse and chariot and the Sanskrit language. Other branches of these
peoples migrated into Europe, taking with them Indo-European languages
that developed into the chief language groups now spoken in Europe.
Before 1500 BCE,
the Aryans were in close contact with the ancestors of the Iranians, as
well. This is evidenced by similarities between Sanskrit and the earliest
surviving Iranian languages. Thus, the religion of the Rig-Veda contains
elements from three evolutionary strata: Hinduism which arose from the
continued accretion of further elements derived from the original
non-Aryan inhabitants; from outside sources; and from the geniuses of
individual reformers over time. The Indo-Iranian element in later
Hinduism The Vedic god Varuna, now an unimportant sea god, appears in the
Rig-Veda as sharing many features of the Zoroastrian Ahura Mazda ("Wise
Lord"); the hallucinogenic sacred drink soma corresponds to the sacred
haoma of Zoroastrianism. (See Zoroastrianism.)
Even in the earlier parts of the Rig-Veda
the religion had already acquired Indian features. Some of the chief
gods, for example, have no clear Indo-European or Indo-Iranian counterparts.
It is generally presumed that many of them stem from the influence
of the indigenous inhabitants. The Vedic Aryans may never have been
in direct contact with the civilization of the Indus Valley in its prime,
but, the religion of the valley's earlier culture undoubtedly passed down to
them.
The Central Asian nomads who entered
India in the two centuries before and after the beginning of the Christian
Era may have influenced the growth of devotional Hinduism out of Vedic
religion. The classical Western world directly affected Hindu religious
art. Features of Hinduism can be traced to Zoroasterianism. The influence
of later Chinese Taoism on Tantric Hinduism (an esoteric system of rituals
for spiritual power) has been suggested. The influence of Islam and
Christianity on Hinduism can be seen.
The development of Hinduism can be
interpreted as a constant interaction between the religion of the upper
social groups, represented by the Brahmans (priests and teachers), and the
religion of other groups. This has developed from the desire of
lower-class groups to rise on the social ladder by adopting the ways and
beliefs of the higher castes. This process, sometimes called
"Sanskritization," began in Vedic. It was probably the principal method by
which Hinduism spread through the subcontinent and into Southeast Asia.
Sanskritization still continues and it is reflected by the persistent
tendency of low-caste Hindus to try to raise their status by adopting
high-caste customs, such as wearing the sacred cord and becoming
vegetarians.
Many features of Hinduism, as
distinct from Vedic religion, may have been adapted from the religions of
the non-Aryan peoples of India. The phallic emblem of the god Siva arose
from a combination of the phallic aspects of the Vedic god Indra and a
non-Vedic icon of early popular fertility cults. Many features of Hindu
mythology and several of the lesser gods,such as Gaesa, an
elephant-headed god, and Hanuman, the monkey god,were incorporated into
Hinduism and assimilated into the appropriate Vedic gods. The great male
Hindu gods as well as one great goddess, her self, may have originally
incorporated the worship of non-Aryan local goddesses. Thus, the history
of Hinduism can be interpreted as the imposition of orthodox custom upon
wider and wider ranges of people and, complementarily, as the surviving
features of non-Aryan religions gained strength steadily until they were
adapted by the Brahmans.
The prehistoric
culture of the Indus Valley arose
in the latter centuries of the 3rd millennium BCE from the metal-using village
cultures of the region. There is considerable evidence of the
religious life of the Indus people. In most of the village cultures, small
terra-cotta figurines of women, found in large quantities, have been
interpreted as icons of a fertility deity whose cult was also widespread
in the Mediterranean area and in western world from Neolithic times
onward. This hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that the goddess was
apparently associated with the bull, a feature also found in the
ancient religions farther west.
The Harappa culture (often called the
Indus Valley civilization), located in modern Pakistan produced evidence
of the cult of the goddess and the bull. No building has been discovered
at any Harappan site that can be positively identified as a temple, but
the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro was almost certainly used for ritual
purposes. Artifacts indicate a strong concern for cleanliness that may
have been related to concepts of ritual purity as well as to ideas of
hygiene that followed. The fact that Harappans buried their dead with
grave deposits, a practice not followed by the later Hindus, suggests that
they had some belief in an afterlife. In addition, small figurines for
cult purposes,are found in all parts of India and may have been borrowed
from pre-Aryan civilizations.
The century from about 550
BCE onward ,was a period of great change in the religious life of India.
.This century saw the rise of breakaway sects of ascetics who denied the
authority of the Vedas and of the Brahmans and who followed founders claiming
to have discovered the secret of obtaining release from transmigration. By
far the most important of these were Siddhartha Gautama, called the
Buddha, and, Vardhamana,called, Mahavira ("Great Hero"), the great teacher of
Jainism.
The Brahmans were very influential, but
opposition had developed to their large-scale animal sacrifices,on both
philosophical and economic grounds. Furthermore, their pretensions to
superiority by virtue of their birth were questioned. The doctrine of
transmigration was by then generally accepted, although a group of
outright materialists denied the survival of the soul after death.
Popular religious life largely
centered on the worship of local fertility divinities (yaksha),
snake-spirits (naga), and other minor spirits in sacred places and groves
(caitya). Although there were sacred places and groves that were the main
centers of popular religious life, there is no evidence of any buildings
or images associated with them. It appears that neither temples nor large
icons existed at the time.
Around 500 BC asceticism became widespread.An increasing numbers of intelligent young
men "gave up the world" to search for release from transmigration by
achieving a state of psychic security. The orthodox Brahmanical teachers
reacted to these tendencies by devising the doctrine of the four ashramas.
This attempt to keep asceticism in check and confine it to men of
late middle age was never followed universally. Sentiments in favor of nonviolence (ahimsa)
and vegetarianism were much encouraged by the heterodox sects. In
addition, they were encouraged by Asoka, a great ruler of the time. Inscriptions, point to the
emergence of devotional theism in the 2nd century BCE. Several brief
votive inscriptions refer to the god Vasudeva The identification of Vasudeva
with the old Vedic god Vishnu and, later, with Vishnu's incarnation,
Krishna,was quickly accepted. Near the end of the Mauryan period the first
surviving stone images of Hinduism appear. Temples are not clearly attested
in this period by either archaeology or literature. A few fragmentary
images thought to be those of Vasudeva and Siva, the latter in a
anthropomorphic form and in the form of a lingam, or phallic emblem, are
found on coins of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
The centuries immediately preceding and following the dawn of the Common Era saw
the revisions of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Ramayaa and the Mahabharata
(the latter incorporating into it the Bhagavad-gita). They became available
. Although it was the worship of Vishnu, incarnate as Krishna in the
Mahabharata and as Rama in the Ramaya?a, that developed significantly during
this period. The god Siva is active in the Mahabharata, and the cult of Siva
developed alongside the cult of Vishnu. Several goddesses began to gain
importance in this period the creative principle personified as the Mother
Goddess took place during the western world's medieval
times.
The Gupta period (4th–6th century)
saw the rapid development of temple architecture. Earlier temples were
made of wood, but freestanding stone and brick temples soon appeared in
many parts of India. By the 7th centuryCE, stone temples, some of
considerable dimensions, were found in the Aryanized parts of the country.
Originally, the design of the Hindu temple may have borrowed from a
Buddhist precedent, for in some of the oldest temples the image was placed
in the centre of the shrine, which was surrounded by an ambulatory path
resembling the path around the Buddhist stupa (a religious building
containing a relic). Nearly all surviving Gupta temples are comparatively
small. The massive and tall tower of the Buddhist temple of Buddha Gaya,
which was in existence in the 7th centuryCE, represents the culmination of
Gupta temple architecture. The Buddhists and Jains had made use of
artificial caves for religious purposes, and these were adapted by the
Hindus. Hindu cave-temples, however, are comparatively
rare.
Hinduism and Buddhism had an immense impact on the civilizations of Southeast
Asia and contributed greatly to the development of a written tradition in that
area. Around the beginning of the Christian era, Indian merchants in
comparatively large numbers settled in SE Asia, bringing Brahmans and Buddhist
monks with them. Nearly as dubious
is an assertion of Hindu influence on the religious life of the Far East
to that of the ancient Mediterranean world. The Greek philosopher
Pythagoras may have learned his doctrine of metempsychosis
(transmigration, of the soul) from India, but similar ideas were known in
Egypt and were certainly present in Greece before the time of Pythagoras.
The Pythagorean doctrine of a cyclic universe may also be derived from
India. The most striking similarity of Greek and Indian thought is the
resemblance between the systems of mystical gnosis (esoteric knowledge)
The centuries immediately preceding
and following the dawn of the Common Era saw revisions of the two great
epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (the latter incorporating into it
the Bhagavadgita). Although it was the worship of Vishnu, incarnate as
Krishna in the Mahabharata, and, as Rama in the Ramayana, that developed
significantly during this period. The god Siva is active in the
Mahabharata, and the cult of Siva developed alongside the cult of Vishnu.
(Editor's Note: the word cult should not be given a negative connotation
it is used as Christians use sects or denominations such as the many
evangelical Christian churches.)
The Vedic god
Rudra (Siva)gained in importance. Rudra is
for the first time called Siva and is described as the creator, preserver,
and destroyer of the universe. The tendency was for the laity
to form cults, In addition, Buddhism, and Jainism, promoted the growth
of devotional Vaishnavism and Saivism. These local associations of worshipers
appear to have been a principal factor in the spread of the new cults.
Ascetics are less in evidence at this earlier time
By the time of the
early Gupta empire the new theism had been harmonized with the old Vedic
religion, and two of the main branches of Hinduism were fully recognized.
I Several
goddesses began to gain importance in
the early Christian period. Though goddesses had always been worshiped
in local and popular cults, they played a comparatively minor
roles in Vedic religion. Lakshmi or Sri, goddess of fortune and consort of
Vishnu, was worshiped before the beginning of the Christian era But, the
cult of Durga, the consort of Siva, began to gain importance in the 4th
centuryCE. Also the large-scale development of Saktism (devotion to the active,
creative principle personified as the Mother Goddess) did not blossom
until circa western medieval times.
The Buddhists and Jains had made
use of artificial caves for religious purposes.These were adapted by the Hindus.
Hindu cave-temples, however, are comparatively rare, and none has been
discovered from earlier than the Gupta period. In the Pallava site of Mahabalipuram,
south of Madras, a number of small temples were carved in the
Third century (CE) from out-cropping of rock and represent some of the oldest
religious buildings in the Tamil country.
There is a resemblance to
those of Christianity, and claims have been made by both Hinduism and
Christianity that the one influenced the other. There is, however, no
definitive evidence for the priority of either one.
The medieval period saw the growth of
new devotional religious movements centered on hymnodists who taught in
the popular languages of the time. The new movements probably began with
the appearance of hymns in Tamil associated with two groups of poets, the
Nayaars, worshipers of Siva, and the Ayvars, devoted to Vishnu. The
oldest of these date from the early 7th century, although passages of
devotional character can be found in earlier strata of Tamil
literature.
The term bhakti, in the sense of
devotion to a personal god, appears in the Bhagavadgita and the
Svetasvatara Upanishad. In bhakti, devotion is associated with singing in
the languages of the common people. It was highly charged with emotion,
and the relation of worshiper and divinity was often described by the
analogy of that of lover and beloved. This devotional poetry is
characterized by a mystical fervor not found in the Upanishads and the
Bhagavadgita. But the dominant emotion in these poems is one of joy, often
expressing itself in song and dance. The poems have a strong ethical
content and encourage the virtues of love, humility, and brotherhood.
The devotional
cults weakened Buddhism, which had long been on the decline. From time to
time Hindus, especially in the early 7th century,are reported to be
active persecutors, destroying monasteries and killing monks. Buddhism in
eastern India, however, was well on the way to being reabsorbed into Hinduism
when the Muslims invaded the GangesValley in the 12th century. The great
Buddhist shrine of Buddha Gaya, the site of the Buddha's enlightenment,
became a Hindu temple and remained as such until recent times.
Prior to Modern
times, at the end of its earlier existence in India,
Buddhism developed in a way that had some effect on Hinduism. Among the
Buddhist Tantrists as those who sang their verses in the contemporary
languages. They taught that giving up the world was not necessary for
release from transmigration and that by living a life of simplicity in
one's own home one could achieve the highest state..
The phase of
Indian history marked by the domination of the Muslims in most of northern
India saw great changes in Indian religions. The advent of Islam in the
Ganges Basin at the end of the 12th century CE resulted in the withdrawal
of royal patronage from Hinduism. The attitude of the Muslim rulers toward
Hinduism varied. Some were strongly anti-Hindu and enforced payment of
jizya, a poll tax on unbelievers. Others, like the Bengali sultan, usayn
Shah Ala ad-Din (reigned 1493–1519CE) and the great Akbar (reigned 1556 -
1605CE), were well-disposed toward their Hindu subjects. Still, many
temples were destroyed by the more fanatical rulers. Conversion to Islam
was more common in areas where Buddhism had once been strongest, in
effect, modern Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Kashmir. By the time of early Muslim rule, the main divinities of
later Hinduism were worshiped. Rama, the hero of the epic poem, had
become the eighth avatar of Vishnu, and his cult was growing. Similarly, Rama's
monkey helper, Hanuman, now one of the most popular divinities of
India. He was a ready helper in time of need and was rising in
importance. Krishna was worshiped with his voluptuous consort,
Radha
From the Gupta
period onward Hindu temples became larger and more prominent, throughout
India . The largest temple of the region is the famous Black Pagoda, the
Sun Temple (Surya Deuaa) of Konarak, built in the mid-13th century. Its
tower has long since collapsed, only the assembly hall remains. By the end
of the 1st millennium CE the South Indian style had reached its apogee in
the great Rajarajesvara temple of Thanjavur (Tanjore). In the temple the
god was worshiped by the rites of puja (reverencing a sacred being or
object) as though the worshipers were serving a great king. In the
important temples a large staff of trained officiants waited on the god.
He was awakened in the morning along with his goddess, washed, clothed and
fed, placed in his shrine to give audience to his subjects. He was praised
and entertained throughout the day, ceremoniously fed, undressed, and put
to bed at night. Worshipers sang, burned lamps, waved lights before the
divine image, and performed other acts of homage. The god's dancing girls
( devadasis) performed before him at regular intervals, watched by the
officiants and lay worshipers, who were his courtiers. These women, either
the daughters of devadasis, or girls dedicated in childhood, may have also
served as prostitutes. The association of dedicated prostitutes with
certain Hindu shrines can be traced back to before the Christian era. It
became more widespread in post-Gupta times, especially in South India. The
practiceroused the disapprovalof 19th-century Europeans.
Through the efforts of Hindu reformers the office of the devadasis was
discontinued. The great
temples became (and still are) wealthy institutions. They were supported
by the transfer of the taxes levied by kings on specific areas, by
donations of the pious, by the fees of worshipers. They were controlled
by self-perpetuating committees,whose membership was usually a
hereditary privilege,and by a large staff of priests and temple servants
under the high priest who wielded tremendous power and influence. The
great walled temple complexes of South India were (and still are) small
cities. Theycontain the central and numerous lesser shrines, bathing
tanks, administrative offices, homes of the temple employees, workshops,
bazaars, and public buildings of many kinds. They play an important part
in the economy, as they were among the largest employers and greatest
landowners in their areas. They also performed valuable social functions
because they served as schools, dispensaries, poorhouses, banks, and
concert halls.
The Muslim occupation brought India
into close contact with a different, more aggressive, religion. The absence
of a central religious authority in Hinduism was a source
of strength. The purohitas, or family priests who performed the domestic rituals
and personal sacraments for the lay people, continued to function, as
did the thousands of ascetics. It was in Muslim-occupied territory
that the temples suffered the most. In the sacred cities of Varanasi
(Benares) and Mathura, no large temple remains from before the 17th
century. The same is true of most of the main religious centers of
northern India. Before the time the Muslims invaded
the subcontinent, the new forms of South Indian bhakti were spreading
beyond the bounds of the Dravidian south the growing Vaishnava bhakti
cults provided a philosophical framework that also influenced
others. Two other
Vaishnava teachers deserve mention. Nimbarka,
a Telugu Brahman of the 12th or 13th century, spread the cult
of the divine cowherd and his favorite gopi (cowherdress, especially associated
with the legends of Krishna's youth., Radha. His sect survives
near Mathura but has made little impact elsewhere. More important was
Vallabha ( Vallabhacarya; 1479 - 1531), who took the Vaishnava
doctrine of grace and emphasized its erotic imagery. It was noteworthy
because it stresses absolute obedience to the guru (teacher. The Saiva
sects also developed from the 10th century onward. The school of
Saiva-siddhanta is still one of the most significant religious forces in
that region. An important sect, founded in the 12th century in the Deccan,
was that of the Ligayats, or Virasaivas ("Heroes of the Saiva Religion").
They taught doctrines of surprising unorthodoxy. It was opposed all forms
of image worship and accepted only the lingam of Siva as a sacred symbol
The Gorakhnathis were particularly
important as propagators of the practices of hatha-yoga. It is a form of
yoga that requires complex and difficult physical exercises that have
become popular in the West. These yogis, who are still numerous are
influenced by the teaching of several of the bhakti poets. The poets, singers, chanters, and
"saints" of medieval bhakti appeared throughout India. Although all have
their individual genius, the bhakti lyricists share a number of common
features whatever their language. The Sanskrit education needed for
authors of Sanskrit texts limited them largely to the Brahman class and
thus exhibited a cultural bias. In contrast, because bhakti poets could
use any language, they might come from any class. They brought to their poetry a familiarity with folk
religion unknown or ignored in the Sanskrit texts. The use of the native
laymen's' language made possible the immediate expression of imaginative
visions that needed no further context. The lyrics are short, intensely
personal, and precise. These works illustrate the localistic and
reformist tendency evidenced throughout India in the vernacular
literatures, especially in Tamil, Bengali, and Hindi. The origin of
these new forms of Hinduism has sometimes been attributed to the influence
of Islam. But, certainly Bhakti was not a response to Islam because the
practice of singing ecstatic hymns in the local language was well-known in
South India even before Muhammad. All features of this bhakti are found in
the Bhagavata-Purana and in the commentaries of Ramanuja. The earliest
bhakti was composed before Muslims occupied the area. Clearly, the
passionate bhakti existed long before the Muslim conquest. However the
psychological effect of the Muslim conquest may also have predisposed the
people to accept the powerful teachings of the poets. Much has been
said about the synthesis of Hinduism and Islam in the period of Muslim
dominance, but, as far as the Hindus were concerned, this was generally a
matter of superficial observances. Thus, purdah (parda), the strict
seclusion of women, became commonplace among the Hindu upper classes of
northern India, numerous Muslim social customs were adopted. The
fundamental theology of Hinduism, however, was unaffected by Islam
In Hindi,
Bengali, Gujarati, Punjabi, and Marathi there is much poetic literature,
written by Muslims and commencing with the Islamic invocation of Allah,
which nevertheless betrays strong Hindu influence. For example, there are
texts that proclaim Krishna as being in the line of the prophets of Islam.
Also, as the teacher of the unity of God. Much mystical poetry, though
written by authors with Muslim names, uses Hindu imagery and Hindu
terminology. This literature proclaimed that Muslim, Christian, Jew,
Zoroastrian, and Hindu were all striving toward the same goal and that the
outward observances that kept them apart were false. Some of the Indian
Sufis were greatly influenced by Hindu customs.. Tolerant Muslim rulers encouraged the blending and
merging tendencies. At the zenith of the reign of the Great Akbar
(1556–1605), who took a great interest in the religion of his Hindu
subjects, he tried to establish a single, all-embracing religion for his
empire. Although the efforts of Akbar failed, they influenced India
for more than 50 years after his death. The orthodox Muslim priestly
theologians had long complained about the growth of this heresy (a threat
to their vocation) Therefore, the emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707)
did all in his power to discourage this uniting of the faiths. Popular
Muslim preachers throughout the 18th and 19th centuries worked to restore
orthodoxy. Thus, syncretic tendencies virtually came to an end before the
imposition of British power in the mid-18th century. Furthermore, British
rule emphasized the distinctions between Hindu and Muslim and did not
encourage efforts to harmonize the two religions. Though the
majority of caste Hindus was unaffected, the Portuguese promoted Roman
Catholicism n in their small coastal settlements in southern India. Their
missionary activity made converts, most of who were of low caste. Small
Protestant missions operated from the Danish factories in Tamil Nadu and
in Bengal, but they were even less influential. The British East India Company, conscious of the
disadvantages of unnecessarily antagonizing its Indian subjects, excluded
all Christian missionary activity from its territories. Indeed, the
company continued the patronage accorded by indigenous rulers to many
Hindu temples and forbade its Indian troopsThe pioneer of reform to
embrace Christianity. Eventually, the growing evangelical conscience in
England brought this policy to an end with the renewal of the company's
charter in 1813. The company's policy then became one of strict
impartiality in matters of religion. The missionaries were allowed to
proselytize as they did their work throughout its territory. Thus,
Christian ideas began to spread.
After Ram Mohun
Roy's death, Debendranath Tagore became leader of the Brahmo Samaj. under
his guidance a more mystical note resonated from the society. The third
great leader of the Brahmo Samaj, Keshab Chunder Sen, was a vigorous
reformer who completely abolished caste in the samaj and admitted women.
As his theology became more eclectic, a schism developed. The result was ,
and the more conservative faction remained under the leadership of Tagore.
Keshab's faction, the Brahmo Samaj of India, adopted as its scripture a
selection of theistic texts gathered from all the main religions. Still,
it became more Hindu in its worship, employing the sakirtana (hymn-singing
session) and nagara-kirtana (street procession) In 1881 Keshab founded the
Church of the New Dispensation (Naba Bidhan) for the purpose of
establishing the truth of all the great religions in an institution that
he believed or hoped would replace them all. When he died in 1884, the
Brahmo Samaj began to decline, but it produced
the greatest poet of modern India, Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), son of
the second of its great leaders, Debendranath Tagore. The great
Bengali poet, Rabindranath Tagore, was influenced by many currents of
earlier religious thought, both Indian and other. Tagore was particularly
popular in Europe and America around the time of World War I. He did much
to disseminate Hindu religious thought in the West. A reformer of
different character was Dayanand Sarasvati, who was trained as a yogi but
steadily lost faith in yoga and many other aspects of Hinduism. After
traveling widely as an itinerant preacher, he founded the Arya Samaj in
1875, and it rapidly gained ground in the west of India. Its leader,
Dayanand rejected image worship, sacrifice, and polytheism and claimed to
base his doctrines on the four Vedas as the eternal word of God. Later
Hindu scriptures were criticized. Many of them were believed to be
completely evil. The Arya Samaj did much to encourage Hindu nationalism,
but it did not disparage the knowledge of the West. It established many
schools and colleges. Among its members was the revolutionary politician
Lala Lajpat Rai. NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS The most important
development arose from the mystic Ramakrishna,
who was a devotee at a temple of Kali called Dakiesvar to the north of
Calcutta. He attracted a band of educated lay followers who spread his
doctrines. As a result of his studies and visions, he came to the conclusion that "all religions are true"
but that the religion of a person's own time and place was for him the
best expression of the truth. Even idolatry met the needs of simple
people and was not to be disparaged. Ramakrishna thus gave educated Hindus
a basis on which they could justify the less rational aspects of their
religion to a consciousness increasingly influenced by Western
values. Among the followers
of Ramakrishna was Narendranath Datta, who became an ascetic after his
master's death and assumed the religious name Vivekananda. In 1893 he
attended the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago. His powerful
personality and stirring oratory deeply impressed the gathering. In 1897
with a small band of Western disciples. he founded the Ramakrishna
Mission, the most important modern organization of reformed Hinduism.
Vivekananda, more than any earlier Hindu reformer, encouraged social
service and the uplift of the downtrodden. He was strongly influenced by
progressive Western political ideas and declared that he was firmly
against all forms of caste distinction. In addition, he fostered a spirit
of self-reliance in his followers. The Ramakrishna
Mission has done much to spread knowledge of its version of Hinduism
outside India and now has branches in many parts of the
world. Another movement
somewhat influenced by Hinduism is the Theosophical Society, once. Founded
in New York City in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky of Russia, it had as its
original inspiration the Kabbala (Jewish esoteric mysticism), Gnosticism
(esoteric salvatory knowledge), and other forms of Western occultism. When
Blavatsky went to India in 1879, her doctrines quickly took on an Indian
character, and from her headquarters at Adyar she and her followers
established branches in many cities of India. Another modern
teacher whose doctrines have had some influence outside India was Sri
Aurobindo. When he withdrew from politics and settled in Pondicherry,
there he established an ashram, or asrama (a retreat). He achieved a high
reputation as a sage. His followers saw him as the first incarnate
manifestation of the super-beings whose evolution he prophesied,. It is
apparent, he did not discourage this belief. After his death, the
leadership of the Aurobindo Ashram was assumed by Mira Richard, a
Frenchwoman who had been one of his disciples. The Swami
Sivananda, who had been a physician, established an ashram and an
organization called the Divine Life Society near the sacred site of
Rishikesh in the Himalayas. This organization has numerous branches in
India and some elsewhere. His movement teaches more or less orthodox
Vedanta, combined with both yoga and bhakti, but rejects caste and
stresses social service. The Hindu
revival and reform movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries were
closely linked with the growth of Indian nationalism and the struggle for
independence. The Arya Samaj strongly encouraged nationalism, and even
though Swami Vivekananda and the Ramakrishna Mission were always
uncompromisingly nonpolitical, their effect in promoting the movement for
self-government is quite evident. Tilak, an
orthodox Maharashtrian Brahman believed that the people of India could be
aroused only by appeals to nationalism couched in religious terms. Tilak
used the annual festival of the god Ga?esa (Gaapati) for nationalist
propaganda. His interpretation of the Bhagavadgita was a call for
nationalistic to action. Through his mediation the Bhagavadgita became a
stimulus to later leaders, including Mohandas K. Gandhi, the Mahatma.
Hindu religious
concepts were enlisted in the nationalist cause in Bengal. There was an
anthem, a stirring devotional song written in simple Sanskrit, "Bande
Mataram" ("I revere the Mother") which was popularized by this political
movement. The Mother is both the stern demon-destroying goddess Kali and a
personification of India. Vivekananda emphasized the need to turn the
powerful emotions of bhakti toward the need of the suffering poor of
India. The bhakti of the medieval poets was thus enlisted in the cause of
modern independence. Influenced by
the traditional bhakti of his native Gujarat, fortified by Christian and
other religious literature, Mahatma Gandhi, the most important leader for
independence, appeared to his followers as the quintessence of the Hindu
tradition. The Western
element in Gandhi's ideology has often been exaggerated by proselytizing
visiting Christian preachers when they returned to the USA. His doctrine
of nonviolence can be found in many Hindu sources, although his beliefs
were much strengthened by Christian ethical literature and especially by
the later writings of Leo Tolstoy. His political technique of passive
resistance, satyagraha, also has Indian precedents, although in this he
was influenced by Western writers such as the American Henry David
Thoreau. The chief innovations in Gandhi's philosophy were his belief in
the dignity of manual labor and the equality of women. Weak precedents for
both of these can be found in the writings of some19th-century reformers,
but they have little basis in earlier Indian thought. In many ways
Gandhi was a traditionalist. His respect for the cow, which he and other
educated Indians rationalized as the representative of Mother Earth, was a
factor in the failure of his movement to attract large-scale Muslim
support. His insistence on strict vegetarianism and celibacy among his
disciples was in keeping with the traditions of Vaishnava ascetic ethics
but it caused difficulty among some of his followers. Still, the
success of Gandhi represented to many a political culmination of the
movement of the popular bhakti devotionals begun in South India early in
the Christian era. Humans of all faiths would come to Gandhi's retreat to
join with him in his evening prayers and singing. The selections provide
below give the reader insight to the mind, body, and soul of this great
man. A comparison
of the list of early Christian seven deadly sins with Gandhi's
cautionary list that points the modern human away from personal wrong
doing is instructive: THE SEVEN DEADLY SINS Most would ask :
where are: Jealousy and Suspicion? The Mahatma-
Mohandas. K Gandhi devised a more modern list for Humans living today.
These could be inner attitudes that would result in wrongs done..
Many of the
so-called intractable problems of today are a result of actions taken
without the personal and social responsibility implied by Gandhi's record
of sins today. He set a gold standard for human conduct. The spiritual but
not religious sponsors of the MeetingHouse for Aspiring Spirits have
chosen some of the poems, chants, hymns revered by Gandhi in his time.
Many of other faiths who do not understand or believe that Hindus believe
in one God would find it illuminating to study the prayers selected by
Gandhi. The praise and love for God (Brahma) is universal in its meaning:
Listen to the
essence of religion I have spoiled
everything hitherto We are not to
stay here long, Without the
Master, who can show the path? Lord! Hear this
prayer. What is the use
of taking pride God, ever since
I have had the companionship of Know him to be a
true man Thou seest me, I
should see thee, that were a sign of O! thou,
protector of the universe, I have now
become immortal, I shall not die. Endless stream
of joy flows eternally, Throughout the
whole universe thou alone art, thou appearest as many, taking diverse
forms, Thou art the
seed in the tree and thou art the O! lord of the
afflicted, do not desert me. O! teacher, you
say Brahman is in me but I see him O! tongue, why
dost thou tire of singing God's praises? Light thy heart
and sweep out from there Lead, kindly
light, amid the' encircling gloom, lead thou Me on; o God, such as I
am, I am thy servant. And with the
morn those angel faces smile, Meantime, along
the narrow rugged path, The mantle of
Mahatma Gandhi fell on Vinoba Bhave, one of his most devoted Maharashtrian
supporters. For some years after independence Vinoba led a campaign of
social service that culminated in the bhudan (land-giving) movement, which
persuaded many landowners and wealthy peasants to give fields to landless
laborers. This movement had some small success in rural areas, but it
gradually lost momentum. Although the memory of Gandhi continues to be
revered by most Indians, his policies and principles carry little weight.
The great bulk of social service is performed by government agencies
rather than by voluntary bodies, whether Gandhian or
other. The post world
war II policy of the Indian government was to establish a secular state.
and the successive Congress governments have broadly kept to this policy.
Still, some of the Indian states, have introduced legislation of a
specifically Hindu character. All forms of
discrimination against "untouchables" (now usually referred to by
euphemisms such as "harijans," or "people of God," are forbidden),
although it has been impossible to enforce the law in every case. A great
blow to conservatism was dealt by legislation in 1955 and 1956 that gave
full rights of inheritance to widows and daughters, enforced monogamy, and
permitted divorce on quite easy terms. The 1961 law forbidding dowries
further undermined traditional Hinduism. Although the dowry has long been
a tremendous burden to the parents of daughters, the strength of social
custom is such that the law cannot be fully enforced. The social
structure of traditional Hinduism is slowly crumbling in the cities.
Intercaste and inter-religious marriages are becoming more frequent among
the educated, although some aspects of the caste system show remarkable
vitality, especially in the matter of appointments and elections. The
bonds of the tightly knit Hindu joint family are also weakening, a process
helped by legislation and the emancipation of women. The professional
priests, who perform rituals for lay people in homes or at temples and
sacred sites, complain of the lack of custom, and their numbers are
diminishing. Nevertheless,
Hinduism is far from dying. Mythological films, once the most popular form
of entertainment, are enjoying a renaissance. Some movements can be seen
as the cause or the result, or both, of persistent outbreaks of communal
religious violence involving Hindus and Sikhs in North India, Tamil Hindus
and Sri Lankan Buddhists in Sri Lanka, Tamil extremists and moderates in
Tamil Nadu, and, still everywhere, Hindus and Muslims. The adaptability
of Hinduism to changing conditions is illustrated by the appearance in the
Hindu pantheon of a new divinity, of special utility in an acquisitive
society. This is the goddess Santo?i Mata, first worshiped widely by women
in many cities of Uttar Pradesh and now worshiped throughout India,
largely as the result of a popular mythological film about her birth and
the origin of her worship. The new goddess was unheard-of a few years ago
and has no basis in any Pura?ic myth. Propitiated by comparatively simple
and inexpensive rites performed in the home without the intervention of a
priest, Santo?i, it is believed, grants practical and obvious blessings,
such as a promotion for a needy, overworked husband, a new radio, or even
a refrigerator. News of Santo?i's blessings is passed from housewife to
housewife, and even moderately well-educated women have become her
devotees. On both the intellectual and the popular level, Hinduism is thus
in the process of adapting itself to new values and new conditions that
have been brought about by mass education and industrialization and is
responding to 20th-century challenges.
Hinduism is not
by nature a proselytizing religion, however, in part because of its
inextricable roots in the social system and the land of India. In recent
years, many new gurus, such as BhagwanShree Rajneesh and Satya Sai Baba,
have been successful in making converts in Europe and the United States.
The very success of these gurus, however, has produced material profits
that many people regard as incompatible with the ascetic attitude
appropriate to a Hindu spiritual leader. In some cases, the profits have
led to notoriety and even legal prosecution. In addition, the
self-proclaimed conversion to questionable forms of "Hinduism" by popular
singers and film stars has tended both to increase the glamour and to
diminish respectability among Westerners. That Hinduism is flourishing in
India is obvious; that it has made, and can continue to make, a genuine
contribution to Western religious thought is undeniable; that the invasion
of the gurus is a part of that positive contribution is
debatable. THE DERIVATION OF ETHICAL AND SOCIAL
DOCTRINES In Vedic times, "sin" (énas) or evil (papmán) was put on a par with illness, enmity, distress, or malediction: it was conceived of as a sort of pollution that could be neutralized by ritual or devices for averting evil. A man might incur "sin" by any incorrect or improper behavior, especially improper speech, and thus be guilty of an?ta (i.e., any infidelity to fact or departure from what is true, real, and constitutes the established order) whether or not he had deliberately committed a crime. Other transgressions included making mistakes in sacrifices and coming into contact with corpses, ritually impure persons, or persons belonging to the lower classes of society. These acts were only rarely considered to be misdeeds against a god or violations of moral principles of divine origin, and the consciousness of guilt was much rarer than the fear of the evil consequences of sin, such as disease or untimely death. Sometimes, however, a god (Agni, the evil-devouring fire, or Varu?a, the god of order, whose role included punishing and fettering the "sinner") was invoked to forgive the neglect or transgression or to release a man from their concrete results. More usually, however, these results were abrogated by means of purifications, such as the ceremonial use of water, and a variety of expiatory rites. To the pure who earned ritual merits, the prospect of a safe "world" ( loka) or condition was held out. The meticulous effort to purify oneself from every kind of evil also involved the observance of various customs regarding the avoidance of inauspicious occurrences,an Endeavour called santi. Ritual purity was the principal concern of the compilers of the manuals of dharma (religious law) that, belonging to the sacred tradition (Smriti; i.e., remembered by human teachers), have contributed much to the special character of Hinduism. According to the authorities on dharma, ritual purity is: the first approach to dharma, the resting place of the Veda (Brahman), the abode of prosperity (sri), the favorite of the gods, and the means of clearing (soothing) the mind and of seeing (realizing) the atman in the body. 
Gods were conceived as presiding over certain provinces of the universe or as responsible for important cosmic or social phenomena. Their deeds are timeless and exemplary presentations of mythic events replete with power and universal, eternal significance. To reproduce themselves in time and thus retain their vitality and efficacy, mythical events need to be repeated,that is, celebrated and confirmed by means of the spoken word and ritual acts. Vedic and Brahmanic RitesVedic religion is primarily a liturgy differentiated in various types of ritual designed for almost any conceivable purpose. These rites are described in the texts in minute detail; theoretically, no operation, no gesture, no formula is meaningless or left to an officiant's discretion. On the basis of a complicated speculative system, all are explained and shown to be effective in the Brahma?as. The complicated ritual technique was devised mainly to safeguard human life and survival; to enable people to face the many risks and dangers of existence; to thwart the designs of human and superhuman enemies that cannot be counteracted by ordinary means; to control the unseen powers, and to establish and maintain beneficial relations with the supra-mundane sacred order. Belief in the efficacy of the rites is the natural consequence of the belief that all things and events are connected with or participate in one another. Hence it is also believed that a close correspondence exists between a sacred place,such as the sacrificial place of many Vedic rites, a place of pilgrimage, or a consecrated area (ma??ala, "circle"),and a province of the universe or even the universe itself. These places represent, within the reach of the officiants, the universe or as much of it as is relevant. In such places, direct communication with other cosmic regions (heaven or underworld) is possible because they are said to be at the point of contact between this world and the "pillar of the universe," "the navel of the earth." The sacred place is (by virtue of a system of connections) identical with the universe in its various states of emanation from, re-absorption into, integration with, and disintegration from the sacred. This idea has as its corollary the possibility of ritually enacting the cosmic drama and, thus, of influencing, through the same system of connections, those events in the cosmos that continuously affect human weal and woe. The Vedic ritual system is organized into three main forms. The simplest, and hierarchically inferior, type of Vedic ritualism is the g?hya, or domestic ritual, in which the householder himself offers modest oblations into the one sacred household fire. The more ambitious, wealthy, and powerful married householder sets three or five fires and, with the help of professional officiants, engages in the more complex srauta sacrifices. These require oblations of vegetable substances and, in some instances, of parts of ritually killed animals (mostly goats, but also sheep, cows, horses, and perhaps in ancient times human beings as well). Finally, at the highest level of Vedic ritualism are the sacrifices of soma, which can continue for days or even years and whose intricacies and complexities are truly stunning. The UpanishadsThis is the last component of the Veda, it is the mystically oriented and originally esoteric texts known as the Upanishads, Vedic ritualism and the doctrine of the interconnectedness of separate phenomena was superseded by a new emphasis on knowledge alone,primarily knowledge of the ultimate identity of all phenomena, which merely appeared to be separate. The phase of Indian religious life roughly between 700 and 500 BC was the period of the beginnings of philosophy and mysticism marked by the Upanishads ("Sittings Near a Teacher"). Historically, the most important of these are the two oldest, the B?hadara?yaka ("Great Forest Text") and the Chandogya (pertaining to the Chandogas, a class of priests who intone hymns at sacrifices), both of which are compilations that record the traditions of sages(rishis) of the period, notably Yajñavalkya, who was a pioneer of new religious ideas. The primary motive of the Upanishads is a desire for mystical knowledge that would ensure freedom from "re-death." Throughout the later Vedic period, the idea that the world of heaven was not the end,and that even in heaven death was inevitable,had been growing. The means of escaping and conquering death and of attaining integral life devised in the Brahma?as were of a ritual nature, but in one of the oldest Upanishads, the B?hadara?yaka (c. 10th–5th century BC), more emphasis was placed on the knowledge of the cosmic connection underlying ritual. When the doctrine of the identity of atman (the Self) and Brahman was established in the Upanishads, the true knowledge of the Self and the realization of this identity was substituted for the ritual method.
During this period many groups of mystics, world-renouncers, and forest-dwellers appeared in India, and these included the authors of the Upanishads. Among the more important practices and doctrines of these world-renouncers were asceticism and the concept of rebirth or transmigration. The Rig-Veda shows few examples of asceticism, except among the munis (shamans). The Atharvaveda describes another class of religious adepts, or specialists, the vratya s, particularly associated with the region of Magadha (west central Bihar). The vratya was a wandering Holy person who remained outside the regular system of Vedic religion. He traveled from place to place in a bullock cart with an apprentice and with a woman who appears to have been used for ritual prostitution. Flagellation and other forms of self-mortification seem to have been part of his routine. Efforts were made by the orthodox to bring the vratyas into the Vedic system by special rituals of conversion. At the same time, the more complex sacrifices of the later Vedic period demanded purificatory rituals, such as fasting and vigil, as part of the preparations for the ceremony. Thus there was a growing tendency toward the mortification of the flesh. Origin and Development of Transmigration of SoulsThe origin and the development of the belief in the transmigration of souls are very obscure. A few passages suggest that this doctrine was known even in the days of the Rig-Veda. It was first clearly propounded in the earliest Upanishad,the B?hadara?yaka. There it is stated that normally the soul returns to Earth and is reborn in human or animal form. This doctrine of samsara (reincarnation) is attributed to the sage Uddalaka Aru?i,who is said to have learned it from a K?atriya chief. In the same text, the doctrine of karma (actions), according to which the soul achieves a happy or unhappy rebirth according to its works in the previous life, also occurs for the first time, attributed to Yajñavalkya. Both doctrines appear to have been new and strange ones, circulating among small groups of ascetics who were disinclined to make them public. Still, in the later Upanishads and in the earliest Buddhist and Jain scriptures they are common knowledge.
Among the texts inspired by the Veda are the Dharma Sutras, or manuals on dharma, which contain rules of conduct and rites as they were practiced in a number of branches of the Vedic schools. Their principal contents address the duties of people at various stages of life or ashramas, (student hood, householdership, retirement, asceticism). In addition, there were dietary regulations; offenses and expiations; They also discuss purification rites, funerary ceremonies, forms of hospitality, and daily oblations. Finally, they even mention juridical matters. The more important of these texts are the sutras of Gautama, Baudhayana, and Apastamba.. The contents of these works were further elaborated in the more systematic Dharma Shastras, which in turn became the basis of Hindu law. Second only to Manu is the Dharma Shastra of Yajñavalkya; its 1,013 stanzas are distributed under the three headings of good conduct, law, and expiation. Its commentary, Mitak?ara of Vijñanesvara (11th century), extended its influence. Smriti TextsThe shastras are a part of the Smriti ("Remembered," or traditional) literature which, like the sutra literature that preceded it, stresses the religious merit of gifts to Brahmans. The Brahmans were encouraged to devote themselves to the study of the Vedas and the subsidiary studies associated with them. However, many Brahmans also developed the sciences of the period, such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, while others cultivated literature. The Smriti texts are binding to this day on orthodox Hindus, and until quite recently Hindu family law was based on them. Although there is evidence of divorce in early Indian history, by the Gupta period marriage was solemnized by lengthy sacred rites and was virtually indissoluble. Intercaste marriage was becoming rarer and more difficult. Child marriage and the rite of suttee were already in existence. One of the earliest definite records of a widow burning herself on her husband's pyre is found in an inscription from Eran, Madhya Pradesh, dated 510, but the custom had been followed sporadically long before this. From the 6th century AD onward, such occurrences became frequent in certain parts of India, particularly in Rajasthan. The Epics Mahabharata and Ramayuna and PurahasDuring the centuries immediately preceding and following the beginning of the Christian era, the restoration of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramaya?a, took shape out of existing material such as heroic epic stories, mythology, philosophy, and above all the discussion of the problem of dharma. Much of the material of which the epics are composed dates far back into the Vedic period, while the rest continued to be added until well into the medieval period. It is conventional, however, to date the revisions of the Sanskrit texts to the period from 300 BC to AD 300 for the Mahabharata and to the period from 200 BC to AD 200 for the Ramaya?a. The MahabharataThe MahabhaIata ("Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty"), a text of some 100,000 verses attributed to the sage Vyasa, was preserved both orally and in manuscript form for many centuries. The central plot concerns a great battle between the five sons of Pau, called the Paavas (Arjuna, Yudhihira, Bhima, and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva), and the sons of Pau's brother Dhtarara. The battle eventually leads to the destruction of the entire race, save for one survivor who continues the dynasty. As each of the heroes is the son of a god (Indra, Dharma, Vayu, and the Asvins, respectively), the epic is deeply infused with religious implications. There are, moreover, many passages in which dharma are systematically treated, so that Hindus regard the MahabhaIata as one of the Dharma Shastras. Religious practice takes the form of Vedic ritual on official occasions, pilgrimage, and, to some extent, adoration of gods. Apart from the Bhagavadgita (part of book 6) much of the didactic material is found in the Book of the Forest (book 3), in which sages teach the exiled heroes, and in the Book of Peace (book 12), in which the wise Bhi?ma expounds on religious and moral matters. The Vedic gods have lost importance and survive as figures of folklore. Prajapati of the Upanishads is popularly personified as the god Brahma, who creates all classes of beings and dispenses boons. Of far greater importance is Krishna. In the epic he is a hero, a leader of his people, and an active helper of his friends. His biography as it is known later is not worked out; still, the text is the source of early Krishnaism. Not everywhere, and certainly not by everyone, is Krishna considered a god. Still, even as god his stature is superhuman rather than divine. Later, as one of the most important of the incarnations of Vishnu, Krishna undergoes a complex development as an incarnate god. In the Mahabharata he is primarily a hero, a chieftain of a tribe, and an ally of the Pa??avas, the heroes of the Mahabharata. He accomplishes heroic feats with the Pa??ava prince Arjuna. Typically he helps the Pa??ava brothers to settle in their kingdom and, when the kingdom is taken from them, to regain it. In the process he emerges as a great teacher who reveals the Bhagavadgita, the most important religious text of Hinduism. In the further development of the Krishna myth, this dharmic aspect recedes and makes way for an idyllic myth about Krishna's boyhood, when he plays with and loves young cowherd women (gopi s) in the village The influence of this theme on art has been profound. But there is a shadow side to this idyll. Even in the Mahabharata, where it is often said that Krishna becomes incarnate in order to sustain dharma when it wanes and to combat adharma (forces contrary to dharma), he himself commits a number of deeds in direct violation of the warrior ethic and is indirectly responsible for the destruction of his entire family. This adharmic shadow is also cast in the Pura?ic idyll because the gopis that he woos are the wives of other men. Far remoter less accessible than Krishna is Siva, who also is hailed as the supreme god in several myths recounted of him. In Story of the Five Indras, Arjuna's battle with him, and his destruction of the sacrifice of Daksha unfolds. The epic is rich in information about sacred places. It is clear that making pilgrimages and bathing in sacred rivers constituted an important part of religious life. In addition there are countless edifying stories that shed light on the religious and moral concerns of the age. Almost divine are the towering ascetics capable of fantastic feats, whose benevolence is sought and whose curses are feared. The RamayaaThe classical narrative of Rama is recounted in the Sanskrit epic the Ramaya?a by the sage Valmiki, who is the traditional author of the epic. Rama is deprived of the kingdom to which he is heir and is exiled to the forest with his wife Sita and his brother Lak?ma?a. While there, Sita is abducted by Rava?a, the demon king of La?ka. In their search for Sita. They find Sita in La?ka. In a cosmic battle, Rava?a is defeated and Sita rescued. When Rama is restored to his kingdom, the populace casts doubt on Sita's chastity while a captive. To reassure them, Rama banishes Sita to a hermitage, where she bears him two sons and eventually dies by reentering the earth from which she had been born. Rama's reign becomes the prototype of the harmonious and just kingdom, to which all kings should aspire. Rama and Sita set the ideal of conjugal love; Rama's relationship to his father is the ideal of filial love; and Rama and Lak?ma?a represent perfect fraternal love. Everything in the myth is designed for harmony, which after being disrupted is at last regained. In all but its oldest form, the Ramaya?a identifies Rama with Vishnu as another incarnation. This remains the principal source for Ramaism (worship of Rama). Though not as long as the Mahabharata, the text contains a great deal of comparable religious material in the form of myths, stories of great sages, and accounts of exemplary human behavior. Rama also has a shadow or dark side. His killing of the monkey king Valin (or Balin)is in violation of all rules of combat. His banishment of the innocent Sita is troublesome to subsequent tradition. These problems of the "subtlety" of dharma and the inevitability of its violation are central themes in both epics. They remain the locus of philosophical argument throughout Indian history. Apart from their influence as Sanskrit texts, the Mahabharata and the Ramaya?a have made an impact in southern and Southeast Asia, where their stories have been continually retold in vernacular and oral versions. Their influence on Indian and Southeast Asian art has been profound. Even today, the epic stories and tales are part of the early education of all Hindus; a continuous reading of the Ramaya?a is an act of great merit, and a popular enactment of one version is an annual event across northern India. The BhagavadgitaThe Bhagavadgita ("Song of the Lord") is the most influential Indian religious text, although it is not strictly Sruti, or revelation. It is a brief text, 700 verses divided into 18 chapters, in quasi-dialogue form. When the opposing parties in the Mahabharata war stand ready to begin battle, Arjuna, the hero of the favored party, despairs at the thought of having to kill his kinsmen and lays down his arms. Krishna, his charioteer, friend, and adviser, thereupon argues against Arjuna's failure to do his duty as a noble. The argument soon becomes elevated into a general discourse on religious and philosophical matters. The text is typical of Hinduism in that it reconciles different viewpoints, however incompatible they seem to be, and yet emerge with an undeniable character of its own. Three different ways of releasing the self from transmigration are set forth. There is the discipline of action (karma-yoga): against the views held by Buddhism, Jainism, and Sa?khya philosophy, which hold that all acts bind and that therefore abstention from action is a precondition of release. Krishna argues that it is not the acts that bind but the selfish intentions with which they are performed. He argues for a self-discipline in which a person does his duties according to the dictates of prescribed tasks (dharma), but without any self-interest in the personal consequences of the acts. He does not deny the relevance of the discipline of knowledge (jnana-yoga), in which one seeks release in a yogic (ascetic) course of withdrawal and concentration. Then his tone changes and becomes intensely religious: Krishna reveals himself as the Supreme God and grants Arjuna a vision of himself. The third, and perhaps superior, way of release is through a discipline of devotion to God (bhakti-yoga) in which the self humbly worships the loving God and in release hopes not so much for personal liberation from transmigration but for an eternal vision of God. In response to this devotion, God will extend his grace to his votaries, enabling them to overcome the bonds of this world. The Bhagavadgita is not a systematic theological treatise, and it combines many different elements from Sa?khya and Vedanta philosophy. In matters of religion, its important contribution was the new emphasis placed on devotion, which has since remained a central path in Hinduism. In addition, the popular theism evidenced elsewhere in the Mahabharata and the transcendentalism of the Upanishads converge, and a God of personal characteristics is identified with the brahman of the Vedic tradition. In its three disciplines the Bhagavadgita gives a typology of the three dominant trends of Indian religion: Dharma-based Brahmanism; Enlightenment-based on asceticism; , and Devotion-based Theism. The influence of the Bhagavadgita has been profound. It was a popular text, open to all who would listen, and it was fundamental for all later Hinduism. Vedanta philosophy recognizes it, with the Upanishads and the Brahmasutras (brief doctrinal rules concerning brahman), as the third authoritative text, so that all philosophers wrote commentaries on it. Even in the 20th century, it is evident in the lives of such diverse personalities as the Indian freedom fighters Tilak and Gandhi for both acknowledged its influence. It has continued to shape the attitudes of Hindus. The Bhagavadgita, demands that God's worshipers fulfill their duties,"better one's own duty ill-done than another's well-performed" (3.35),and observe the rules of moral conduct. It bridges the chasm between ascetic disciplines and the search for emancipation, on the one hand, and the exigencies of daily life, on the other. For those who must lead a normal life in this world, the Bhagavadgita provides a moral code and a prospect of final liberation. Thus, the work founded what may be called a social ethic. Because God is in all beings as their physical and psychical substratum,and as he exists collectively in human society,the wise should not see any difference between their fellow creatures and should love God in them equally. Like God himself, the devotee should be impartial,the same to friend as to foe. The serious endeavor of realizing God's presence in human beings requires humility and a complete unconsciousness of oneself as a corollary of the consciousness of the Presence. It demands selfless dedication of all actions, duties, and ceremonies to the Lord; and obliges a person to promote both individual and social uplift and welfare. Yet, by emphasizing that all humans have different propensities for each of the three disciplines of release, but, also different responsibilities arising out of their births in different castes, the Bhagavadgita also provided a powerful justification for the caste system. The PuraasThe period of
the Guptas saw the production of the first of the series (traditionally
18) of voluminous texts that treat in encyclopaedic manner the myths,
legends, and genealogies of gods, heroes, and saints. Many deal with the
same or similar materials. The two principal gods of Pura?ic Hinduism are Vishnu and Radar- Siva. Both are known in the Vedas, though they play only minor roles: Vishnu is the strider who, with his three strides, established the three worlds (heaven, atmosphere, and Earth) and thus is present in all three orders; and Radar-Siva is a mysterious god who must be propitiated. In the Pura?ic literature of AD 500 to 1000, sectarianism creeps into mythology, and one god is extolled above the others. Of prime interest are cosmology, myths of the great ascetics (who in some respects eclipse the old gods), and myths of sacred places, usually rivers and fords, whose powers to reward the pilgrim are often cited and related to local legends. Myths of the GodsAccording to the epic Mahabharata (1.1.39), there are 33,333 Hindu deities. In other, later sources that number is multiplied a thousand fold. Usually, however, the gods are referred to as "The Thirty-Three." New patterns became apparent: the notion of rita, the basis of the conception of cosmic order, was reshaped into that of dharma, or the religious-social tasks and obligations of humans in society that maintain order in the universe. There also was a broader vision of the universe and the place of divinity. Three principal moments are envisioned in the life of the cosmos: creation, maintenance, and destruction. Important myths about the gods are tied to these moments. Traditionally, Brahma is the creator, emanating the universe and simultaneously promulgating the four Vedas from his four mouths. The conception of time as almost endlessly repeating itself in kalpas detracts, however, from the uniqueness of the first creation, and Brahma becomes little more than a demiurge. Far more attention is given to the maintenance and to the destruction of the universe. Maintenance and destruction are symptomatic of order and disorder, and order and disorder in turn are closely associated with society and the realm outside society. The god Vishnu, who became the god of maintenance, is thus also the social god par excellence, while Siva, partly established as the agent of destruction, is in many respects an asocial god. Vishnu is the savior from lawlessness, destroyer of those who threaten the good order, and king of the harmonious realm. Siva represents untamed wildness; he is the lone hunter and dancer, the yogi (the accomplished practitioner of yoga) withdrawn from society, and the ash-covered ascetic. The distinction between the gods is not between good and evil but rather between two ways in which the divine manifests itself in this world,as both benevolent and fearful, both harmonious and disharmonious. 
While all Purana s have exerted influence on Hinduism,and are in turn reflections of trends in Hinduism,none can compare in popularity with the Bhagavata-Purana ("The Purana of the Devotees of the Blessed Lord Krishna"), the Purana of the god Krishna par excellence. It differs from the other Puranas in that it is planned as a unit. Far greater care is taken with both meter and style. Its nearly 18,000 stanzas are divided into 12 books. The most popular part of the Puraha is the description of the life of Krishna, for which it has since remained the principal authority. In this work far greater emphasis than in other texts is placed on the youth of Krishna: the threats against his life by the tyrant Katsa, his flight and life among the cowherds at Gokula, and especially his adventures and pranks with the cowherd girls. This treatment has remained classic, and the popularity of the text has led to the survival of many manuscripts, some beautifully illustrated. Much of medieval Indian painting and an enormous amount of vernacular literature draw upon the Bhagavata-Puraha for their themes. The
Bhagavata-Puraha teaches a quite representative Vaishnava theology: Accepting the Bhagavata-Puraha as a high scriptural authority, Vaishnavism considers God the ground and subsistence of whatever exists, from whom all objects have come, by whom they continue to be, toward whom they move, and into whom they enter at the final dissolution at the end of this world. Unless they already came to him in the state of emancipation (moksha).Between God and the world there is a relation of inconceivable difference in identity and identity in difference (acint yabhedab heda literally, "unthinkable difference and non-difference"). The Lord creates the world merely because he wills to do so. Creation, or rather the process of differentiation and integration, is his sport (lila). The world is real, but reality has two aspects: the transcendent and eternally real and the reality that is progressively realized and, in the process, bound up with the eternal aspect. One of the chief purposes of the Bhagavata-Puraha is the glorification of an intensely personal and passionate bhakti that gradually develops into a decidedly erotic mysticism, independent of all alternative means of salvation. According to this text, there are nine characteristics of bhakti: listening to the sin-destroying sacred histories; praising God's name; remembering and meditating on his nature and salutary endeavor (resulting in a spiritual fusion of devotee and God); serving his image; adoring him; respectful salutation; servitude; friendship; and self-surrender. Meritorious works are also an element of bhakti. According to the Bhagavata-Puraha, the highest Bhagavata,worshiper of the Bhagavat (God: "the Adorable One"),sees himself in all beings and all beings in the Bhagavat. They are free from hatred and prejudice and knowing God to be present in all beings, he loves him by loving them. Those who cannot reach this level can at least have friendly relations with co-religionists, irrespective of their birth or social status, and take compassion upon the infatuated. The true Vaishnava should worship Vishnu or one of his avatars, construct temples, bathe in holy rivers, study religious texts, serve superiors, and honor cows. In social intercourse with the adherents of other religions he tends to be passively intolerant, avoiding direct contact, without injuring them or prejudicing their rights. He should not neglect other gods but must avoid following the rituals of their followers. Misuse of the advantages of birth is severely condemned, and those who apply themselves mainly to the acquisition and enjoyment of wealth are not well qualified for bhakti. The concept of class divisions is accepted, but the idea that possession of the characteristics of a particular class is the inevitable result of birth is decidedly rejected. Because sin is antithetical to bhakti, a Brahman who is not free from falsehood, hypocrisy, envy, aggression, and pride cannot be the highest of men. Many persons of low social status may have some advantage over him in moral attitude and behavior. The most desirable behavior is compatible with bhakti but independent of class. In establishing bhakti religion against any form of opposition and defending the devout irrespective of birth, the Bhagavata religion did not actively propagate social reform; but the attempts to make religion an efficient vehicle of new spiritual and social ideas, especially Caitanya's movement, contributed, to a certain extent, to the emancipation of lowborn followers of Vishnu.
The extensive
mythology attached to Vishnu consists largely of the mythology of his
incarnations ( avatars). Although the notion of "incarnation" is found
elsewhere in Hinduism, it is basic to Vaishnavism. The classical number of
these incarnations is 10, ascending from theriomorphic (animal form) to
fully anthropomorphic manifestations. All Vaishnavas believe in God as a person with distinctively high qualities and worship him through his manifestations and representations. Vaishnava faith is essentially monotheistic, whether the object of adoration is Vishnu Naraya?a or one of his avatars such as Rama or Krishna. Preference for any one of these manifestations is largely a matter of tradition.. Whenever the dharma declines and evil and general disaster threaten, God, the protector and preserver of the world, emanates himself and assumes an earthly form to guard the good, to destroy the wicked, and to confirm the dharma. The benevolence and beneficial activity of these figures (Rama, Krishna, et al.) is, however, occasionally in doubt. In many mythical tales, Vishnu is depicted as a versatile figure of great adaptability. His absorbing, many-sided character was a source of inspiration for various stories in which he often acts deceitfully, selfishly, or helplessly. The scene of his great deeds is usually laid in this world, especially India, in places often mentioned by name. The narratives are full of the miraculous, but their central figures give the impression of human, sometimes all too human, characters whose actions and reactions are within the limits of ordinary understanding. A pronounced feature of Vaishnavism is the strong tendency to devotion ( bhakti), which is generally considered to be "the heart of worship," the sole true religious attitude toward a personal God, and the very foundation of the realization of man's relationship with him. Bhakti is the disinterested performance of all deeds for him, a passionate love and adoration of God, and a complete surrender to him. The widespread bhakti movement is a corollary of the Vaishnava ideal of a loving personal God and aversion to a conception of salvation that puts an end to all consciousness or individuality. Attesting to the superiority of a mystic and emotional attitude to the meditative or preponderantly ritualistic means to the highest goal, the practical and theoretical development of the bhakti idea constitutes one of the main points of difference among the several Vaishnava schools. The belief expressed in the Bhagavadgita,that those who seek refuge in God with all their being will, by his benevolence and grace (prasada), win peace supreme, the eternal abode,was generally accepted. Bhakti will result in divine intercession with regard to the consequences of one's deeds. SaivismThe character and position of the Vedic god Rudra,called Siva, "the Mild or Auspicious One. " when this aspect of his ambivalent nature is emphasized,remain clearly perceptible in some of the important features of the great god Siva, who together with Vishnu came to dominate Hinduism. During a complex
development from ancient times, many different Saiva groups arose. Major
groups contributed the theological principles of Saivism, and Saiva
worship became a complex amalgam of pan-Indian Saiva philosophy and local
or folk worship. In Svetasvatara Upanishad (c. 400 BC), Siva rose to the highest rank. Its author uses grandiose terms to show a way of escape from samsara, to proclaim Siva the sole eternal Lord, and to establish Siva's existence. In this description of Siva he is the ultimate foundation of all existence and the source and ruler of all life, who, while emanating and withdrawing the universe, is the goal of that identifying meditation that leads to complete cessation from phenomenal existence. While Vishnu became a friend nearer to man, Rudra-Siva developed into an ambivalent and many-sided lord and master. As Pasupati ("Lord of Cattle"), he took over the fetters of the Vedic Varu?a; as Aghora ("To Whom Nothing Is Horrible"); he showed the uncanny traits of his nature(evil, death, punishment) and also their opposites. It is not always clear in particular cases whether Siva is invoked as a great deva (god) of frightful aspect, capable of conquering demoniac power, or as the boon-giving Lord and protector. Yet he did not sever his connections with innumerable local deities. His much-feared powers are worshiped by most Hindus, who still continue to invoke him in magical rites. Whereas Vishnu champions the cause of the gods, Siva sometimes sides with the demons. Siva is a typical example of polarity within the Highest Being because he reconciles in his person semantically opposite though complementary aspects: he is both terrible and mild, creator and agent of re-absorption, eternal rest and ceaseless activity. Yet, although Brahman philosophers like to emphasize his ascetic aspects and the ritualists of the Tantric tradition his sexuality, the seemingly opposite strands of his nature are generally accepted as two sides of one character. Siva interrupts his austerity and asceticism (tapas), which is sometimes described as continuous, to marry Parvati,he is even said to perform ascetic acts in order to win her love,and he combines the roles of lover and ascetic to such a degree that his wife must be an ascetic (yogi) when he devotes himself to austerities and a lustful mistress when he is in his erotic mode. This dual character finds its explanation in the ancient double conviction that unrestrained sexual intercourse is conducive to the fertility of nature and that the chastity and continence of the ascetic produce marvelous events and have an uncommon influence upon the unseen. From various mythical tales it is seen that both chastity and the loss of chastity are necessary for fertility and the intermittent process of regeneration in nature. Ascetics engaging in erotic and creative experiences are a familiar feature in Hinduism. The element of teeming sexuality in mythological thought counterbalances the Hindu bent for asceticism. Such sexuality, while rather idyllic in Krishna, assumes a mystical aspect in Siva. His marriage with Parvati is, then, a model of conjugal love, the divine prototype of human marriage, sanctifying the forces that carry on the human race. Siva's myths tend to depict him as the absolutely mighty unique One, who is not responsible to anybody or for anything. His many poses express aspects of his nature: as a dancer, he is the originator of the eternal rhythm of the universe; he also catches the waters of the heavenly Ganges River, which destroy all sin; and he wears in his headdress the crescent moon, which drips the nectar of everlasting life. Siva represents the unpredictability of divinity. In him the Vedic Rudra is partly continued, but his mythology has become exceedingly complex. He is the hunter who slays and skins his prey and dances a wild dance while covered with the bloody hide. Far from society and the ordered world, he sits on the inaccessible Himalayan plateau of Mount Kailasa, an austere ascetic, averse to love, who burns Kama, the god of love, to ashes with a glance from the third eye,the eye of insight beyond duality,in the middle of his forehead. Yet another epiphany is that of the lingam, an upright rounded post, usually of stone, a formalized phallic symbol, in which form he is worshiped throughout India. At the end of the eon, he will dance the universe to destruction. He is, nevertheless, invoked as Siva, Sambhu, Sa?kara (meaning: "the Auspicious One" or "the Peaceful One"), for the god that can strike down can also spare. Snakes seek his company and twine themselves around his body. He wears a necklace of skulls. He sits in meditation, with his hair braided like a hermit's, his body smeared white with ashes. These ashes recall the burning pyres on which the sannyasis (renouncers) take leave of the social order of the world and set out on a lonely course toward release, carrying with them a human skull. Siva demands to be seduced. His consort is Parvati ("Daughter of the Mountain"), a goddess most unlike the consorts of Vishnu As Siva's female counterpart, she inherits some of Siva's more fearful aspects. She comes to be regarded as the power (shakti) of Siva, without which Siva is iit?Iaiiy po??Ii?ss. Shakti is in turn personified in the form of many different goddesses, often said to be aspects of her literally powerless. Thus the spheres of the Vishnu complex and the Siva complex are very different ones. In important respects they represent the two different ethics of Hinduism: the dharma ethic, which aims at upholding the dharma and the cosmic and social order based on it, and the moksha (liberation) ethic, which searches for release from an order that perpetuates transmigration. Myths of Culture HeroesA culture hero can easily be assimilated to a god by identifying him with an incarnation of a god. Thus great religious teachers are considered manifestations of the god of their devotional preaching, and their lives become part of mythology. The mythology concerning great ascetics is very rich. It is in such myths that the mythopoeia imagination exults in its sensitivity to the awesome, mysterious, and marvelous. Moving from myth to legend, there are also stories told of the great teachers, and every founder of a sect is soon deified as an incarnation of a god: the philosopher Sakara (c. 788–820) as an incarnation of Siva, the religious leader Ramanuja (d. AD 1137) as that of Narayaa-Vishnu, and the Bengal teacher Caitanya (1485–1533) simultaneously as that of Krishna and his beloved Radha. Myths of Holy Rivers- The Ganges - And Other PlacesOf particular sanctity in India are the perennial rivers, among which the Ganges stands first. This river, personified as a goddess, originally flowed only in heaven until she was brought down by Bhagiratha to purify the ashes of his ancestors. Confluences are particularly holy, and the Ganges' confluence with the Yamuna at Allahabad is the most sacred spot in India. Another river of importance is the Sarasvati, which loses itself in desert. It was personified as a goddess of eloquence and learning. Every major and many minor temples and sanctuaries have their own myths of how they were founded and what miracles were wrought there. The same is true of famous places of pilgrimage, usually at sacred spots near and in rivers; important among these are Vrindavana (Brindaban) on the Yamuna, which is held to be the scene of the youthful adventures of Krishna and the cowherd wives. Another such centre with its own myths is Gaya, especially sacred for the funerary rites that are held there. And there is no spot in Varanasi (Benares) along the Ganges that is without its own mythical history. Although the detail of Indian philosophy, as it was developed by professional philosophers, may be treated as a subject separate from Hinduism. Still, certain broad philosophical concepts were absorbed into the myths and rituals of Hindus and are best viewed as a component of the religious tradition.
One of the major trends of Indian religious philosophy is a kind of mysticism: the desire for union of the self with something greater than the self. This is true whether that is to be defined as a principle that pervades the universe or as a personal God. Hindu mysticism includes both these forms and a great many that lie in between. At one extreme is the realization of the identity of the individual self with the impersonal principle called brahman, the position of the Vedanta school of Indian philosophy. While at he other extreme are the intensive devotionals to a personal God, called by a variety of names, that one finds in the bhakti (devotional) sects. There are four things common to most Hindu mystical thought.
As can be seen, knowledge is something more than categorizing and analyzing. It is total understanding. This understanding can not be purely intellectual. Some schools equate the final goal with omniscience, as does yoga. Knowing can also mean total transformation: if one truly knows something, he is that thing. Thus, in the devotional schools, the goal of the devotee is to transform himself into a being in eternity that is in immediate and loving relationship to the deity. Despite the fact that there are both ways of knowing, the difference between them is significant. In the first instance, the individual has the responsibility to train and use his own intellect to learn to love. The love relationship of the second, on the other hand, is one of dependence, and the deity assists the devotee through grace. The distinction is generally made by the analogy of the cat and the monkey: the cat carries her young in her mouth, and thus the kitten has no responsibility. But the young monkey must cling by its own strength to its mother's back. It is usual for writers following Surendranath Dasgupta, a historian of Indian philosophy, to list five major varieties of Hindu mysticism, the five having arisen in historical order as follows:
The theologians had to assume the task of explaining the relation between God, as the unaffected and unchanging cause of all things, and the universe. Accordingly , (God) is a Person with high attributes, the object of an individual's search for the highest.
Toward the end of the 5th century, the cult of the Mother Goddess began to achieve a significant place in religious life. Saktism, the worship of the Sakti, the active power of the godhead conceived in feminine terms, should be distinguished from Tantrism, the search for spiritual power and ultimate release by means of the repetition of sacred syllables and phrases (mantras), symbolic drawings (mandalas), and other secret rites elaborated in the texts known as tantras ("looms"). Sakta TantrasSaktism is an amalgam of Saivism and folk mother-goddess cults. The Saiva notion that not Siva himself but his shakti (sexual, creative power) is active is taken to the extreme, that, without Sakti, Siva is a corpse, and simultaneously that Sakti is the creator as well as creation. In yoga, great importance is ascribed to mantras, which conjure up the realities with which they are identified. Another important notion (partly derived from yoga philosophy) is that through the body run subtle canals (Chakras) that carry esoteric powers connected with the spinal cord, at the bottom of which the Goddess is coiled around the lingam as Kundalini. She can be made to rise through the body to the top, whereupon release from samsara takes place. Nature of Tantric TraditionTantrism, which appears both in Buddhism and in Hinduism, is an important component of religion. Generally, Tantrism claims to show in times of religious decadence a new way to the highest goal and bases itself upon mystic speculations concerning divine creative energy(shakti). Tantrism is a method of conquering transcendent powers and realizing oneness with the highest principle by yogic and ritual means,in part magical and orgiastic,which are also supposed to achieve other supra-normal goals. Tantrists take for granted that all factors in both the macrocosm and the microcosm are closely connected. The adept ( sadhaka) has to perform the relevant rites on his own body, transforming its normal, chaotic state into a "cosmos." Contrary to the ascetic emancipation methods of other groups, the Tantrists emphasize the activation and sublimation of the possibilities of their own body, without which salvation is believed to be beyond reach. Tantric worship ( puja) is complicated and in many respects different from the conventional ceremonies According to Tantrism, concentration is intended to evoke an internal image of the deity and to resuscitate the powers inherent in it so that the symbol changes into mental experience. This symbolic ambiguity is performed in connection with images, flowers, and other cult objects. These acts are intended to bring about a transfiguration in the mind of the adept. The MantrasThe mantras (sacred utterances, such as hu, hri, and kla) are an indispensable means of entering into contact with the power they bear and of transcending normal mundane existence. Most potent are the monosyllabic, fundamental, so-called bija ("seed") mantras, which constitute the main element of longer formulas and embody the essence of divine power. The cosmos itself owes its very structure and harmony to them. Also important is the introduction of spiritual qualities or divine power into the body (nyasa) by placing a finger on the relevant spot (accompanied by a mantra). Those Tantrists who follow the "right-hand path" attach much value to the yoga under the influence of bhakti and aspire to a union with the Supreme by emotional-dynamic means. Their yoga being a self-abnegation in order to reach a state of ecstatic blissfulness in which the passive soul is lifted up by divine grace. There is also tantric mantra yoga (discipline through spells), which operates with formulas, and a hatha-yoga, (Sanskrit: "union of force"). In addition to normal yogic practices,abstinences, observances, bodily postures, breath control that requires intensive training, withdrawal of the mind from external objects, concentration, contemplation, and identification that are technically helped by mudras (i.e., ritual intertwining of fingers or gestures expressing the metaphysical aspect of the ceremonies or the transformation effected by the mantras) and muscular contractions,hatha-yoga consists of internal purifications (e.g., washing out stomach and bowels), shaking the abdomen, and some forms of self-torture. The whole process is intended to "control the ‘gross body' in order to free the ‘subtle body.' " Some Tantrists also employ laya yoga ("reintegration by mergence"), in which the female nature-energy (representing the shakti), which is said to remain dormant and coiled in the form of a serpent (kudalini) and is awakened and made to rise through the six centers (chakras) of the body, which are located along the central artery of the subtle body, form the root centre to the lotus of a thousand petals at the top of the head, where it merges into the Puru?a, the male Supreme Being. As soon as the union of shakti and Puruaa has become permanent, according to this doctrine, wonderful visions and powers come to the adept, who then is emancipated. Some of the Tantric texts also pursue worldly objectives involving magic or medicine. Tantric and Sakta Views of Nature, Man, and the Sacred.The Tantric
movement is sometimes inextricably interwoven with Saktism .concerns
"creative energies" that are inherent in and proceed from God and are also
capable of being imagined as female deities. The Vedic goddess Vac (her name means "Word") was then already the energetic and productive partner. The Saktas,often markedly associated with Saivism,drew the following conclusions: creation is the result of the eternal lust of the divine couple; the man who is blissfully embraced by a beloved woman who is PaIvati's counterpart assumes Siva's wonderful personality and, liberated, will continue the joy of amorous sport. In all of his incarnations Vishnu is united with his consort, Lak?mi. The sacred tales of his various relations with her manifestations led his worshipers to view human devotion as parallel to the divine love and hence as universal, eternal, and sanctified In displaying her power she takes into consideration the accumulated karma of the beings, judging mundane existence as merit and demerit. Presented in myth as God's wife and the queen of the universe, she is always intent on liberating, by her favor and compassion, the incarnated souls of the devout. After entering her, the liberated soul takes part in the perfect embrace of the divine couple within Tantric ritual and magical practices. The ritual of the left-hand Tantrists consisted of a kind of black mass in which all of the taboos of conventional Hinduism were conscientiously violated. Thus, in place of the traditional five elements (tattvas) of the Hindu cosmos, these Tantrists used the five "m"s: ma?sa (flesh, meat), matsya (fish), madya (fermented grapes, wine), mudra (frumentum, cereal, parched grain, or gestures), and maithuna ( fornication). The cult of the Saktas is based on the principle of the ritual sublimation of natural impulses to maintain and reproduce life. Sakta adepts are trained to direct all their energies toward the conquest of the Eternal. The ritual satisfaction of lust and the consumption of consecrated meat or liquor are esoterically significant means of realizing the unity of flesh and spirit, of the human and the divine. They are not considered sinful acts but, on the contrary, effective means of salvation. Ritual copulation,which may also be accomplished symbolically,is, for partners, a form of sacralization, the act being a participation in cosmic and divine processes. The experience of transcending space and time, of surpassing the phenomenal duality of spirit and matter, of recovering the primeval unity. Individual and collective yoga and worship, conducted daily, fortnightly, and monthly "for the delectation of the deity," are of special importance. After elaborate purifications, the worshipers,who must be initiated, full of devotion toward the guru and God, have control over themselves, be well prepared and pure of heart, know the mysteries of the scriptures, and look forward to the adoration with eagerness,make the prescribed offerings, worship the mighty puissance of the Divine Mother, and recite the relevant mantras. Once they have become aware of their own state of divinity, they are qualified to unite sexually with the Goddess. If a woman is, in certain rituals, made the object of sexual worship, the Goddess is first invoked into her; the worshiper is not to cohabit with her until his mind is free from impurity and he has risen to divine status. However, the texts reiterate how dangerous these rites are for those who are not initiated; those who perform such ritual acts without merging their minds in the Supreme are likely to go to one of the hells. Tantric and Sakta Ethical and Social DoctrinesThese ethical and social principles, though fundamentally the same as those promulgated in the classical dharma works, breathe a spirit of liberality. Much value is set upon family life and respect for women (the image of the Goddess); no ban is placed on traveling (conventionally regarded as bringing about ritual pollution) or on the remarriage of widows. Although Tantric and Sakta traditions did not oblige their followers to deviate in a socially visible way from the established order, they provided a ritual and a way of life for those who, because of sex or caste, could not participate satisfyingly in the conventional rites. The ancient Tantric tradition has become, through time, so interwoven with more orthodox Hinduism that it is difficult to define precisely. Although it sees an identity between the soul and the cosmos, it speaks of the internalization of the cosmos rather than of the release of the soul to its natural state of unity. The body is the microcosm, and the ultimate state is not only omniscience but total realization of all universal and eternal forces. The body is real, not because it is the function or creation of a real deity but because it contains the deity, together with the rest of the universe. The individual soul does not unite with the One,it is the One, and the body is its function. Tantrism is a feature of much modern mystical thought. In Tantrism the consciousness is spoken of as moving,driven by repetition of the mantra and by other disciplines,from gross awareness of the material world to realization of the ultimate unity. The image is of a serpent, coiled and dormant, awakened and driven upward in the body through various stages of enlightenment until it reaches the brain, the highest awareness. The modern mystic Ramakrishna describes the process, which also describes the experience that all Hindu mystical processes seek:
The recitation of certain myths was prescribed for specific rituals. The epic Mahabharata states that Vedic stories were narrated "in the pauses of the ritual These sutas and other wanderers found ready audiences at sacrifices or places of pilgrimage,disseminated the lore. Such narrators still continue to repeat and embroider their ancient stories of gods, sages, and kings. At an early stage their narratives were dramatized and gave rise to the Sanskrit theatre. Thus, even in Sanskrit literature, oral performance was an essential component, which further facilitated the assimilation of oral vernacular elements. The devotion of which they sing exemplifies the new bhakti movement that seeks a more direct contact between man and God, carried by a passionate love for the deity, who reciprocates by extending his grace to man. These saints also became the inspiration of theistic systematic religion: the Saivas for the Saiva-siddhanta, the Vaishnavas for Visi??advaita New Dravidian genres continued to evolve into the 17th and 18thcenturies, when the Tamil Cittars (from the Sanskrit siddhas, "perfected ones"), who were eclectic mystics, composed poems noted for the power of their naturalistic diction. The Tamil sense and style of these poems belied the Sanskrit-derived title of their authors, a phenomenon that could stand as a symbol of the complex relationship between Dravidian and Sanskrit religious texts. The main languages derived from Sanskrit are Bengali, Hindi (with its many dialects, of which Maithili is the oldest and Urdu, heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic. The earliest texts in Hindi are those attributed to the 13th–14th-century Muslim poet Amir Khosrow. Hindi literature produced its own great religious lyricists beginning with the disciples of Ramananda ( c. 1450), who was a follower of the philosopher Ramanuja. Among them the most famous is Kabir, whose bhakti was nonsectarian. Tulsidas, apart from his Ramcaritmanas, composed Ramaite lyrics; and in the 17th century Tukaram, the greatest poet of this literature, sang of the god of love in numerous hymns. A small sect, the Kabirpanthis, acknowledges Kabir as its founder, but its importance is less than that of the vigorous new religion ( Sikhism) founded by one of Akbar's disciples, Nona. In its final form, Sikhism contains elements taken from Islam (equality in the faith, opposition to iconolatry, extreme reverence for the sacred book) and probably also from Christianity (the Sikh baptism and communion meal), but its theology is still essentially Hindu.
A particularly rich tradition centered in Bengal concentrated on the love of Radha, who symbolizes the human soul, for Krishna, the supreme God. The greatest single influence was Caitanya, who in the 16th century renewed Krishnaism. He left no writings but inspired many hagiographies, among the more important of which is the Caitanya-caritam?ta ("Nectar of Caitanya's Life") by Krishna Das (born 1517). Caitanya had a profound and continuing effect on the religious sentiments of his Bengali countrymen and propagated the community celebration (sa?kirtana) of Krishna. as most powerful to bring about the proper bhakti attitude. Caitanya also introduced the worship of God, the director of man's senses, through the very activity of man's senses, which must be free from all egoism and completely filled with the intense desire (preman) for the satisfaction of the beloved God. (i.e., Krishna). The most famous religious lyrics in Gujarati are the poems of the saint Mira Bai (1503–73), who wrote passionate love poems to Krishna, whom she regarded as her husband and lover. Parts of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramaya?a, and many Puranas (especially the Bhagavata-Purana) were translated into various vernaculars. Technically, these works were not literal translations, but free versions in which the authors placed their own emphases, different from the original and from one another The Mahabharata was translated into Bengali about 1600 and into Telugu by Anaya and Ticking in the 13th century. The Bhagavata-Purana, which was translated frequently (e.g., into Bengali by Magadha Vase, 1480), was popular both as a text and because it gave the canonical account of Krishna's life and especially his boyhood, which is the perennial inspiration of the bhakti poets. Tamils composed their own epics, notably Iwaki Arica's Cilappatikaram ("The Lay of the Anklet") and its sequel, the Ma?imekhalai ("Jeweled Girdle"). In Telugu there is the great Palna?u Epic; Rajasthani has an entire epic cycle about the hero Pabuji. The remaining vernaculars have produced many other works of the epic genre. Much of the classical mythology persists today, and Hindus are exposed to it year-round. Meanwhile, the mass media contributions: a type of motion picture called "mythological" is extremely popular. They perpetuate the ancient stories to the village level, and so are "devotionals," in which examples of bhakti is illustrated. The radio regularly carries bhajans (devotional songs) and classical South Indian songs, the themes of which are often mythic. Every orthodox Hindu's home has at least one corner set aside as a domestic sanctuary where representations of a chosen deity are placed,. Puja (worship) is done with prayers, hymns, flowers, and incense. Richer establishments set aside entire rooms as shrines. Mythic illustrations are favorites in Indian calendar art. Mythology has effortlessly maintained its vibrancy in modernity. The ashram of the 20th-century mystic and religious leader Sri Aurobindo in Pondicherry, dedicated to the Mother Goddess is an extremely modern establishment complete with tennis courts. The new temples are constructed with modern techniques. One temple in Varanasicontains has mirrors onto which are etched the entire Ramcaritmanas. This same poem is the basis of the annual celebration of Ram Lila (the play of Rama) in northern India, in which the entire community participates. The Rama story was evoked by Mahatma Gandhi when he set the Ram Raj ("Kingdom of Rama") as India's governmental ideal. On occasion, social protesters arm themselves with myth to make a point. For example, the personality of Kar?a, an antagonist in the Mahabharata who is berated for his low birth, is extolled in intellectual circles as a truer champion than the aristocratic heroes. On a popular level, people at temples and fairs are continually reacquainted with their mythological heritage by paura?ikas, tellers of the ancient stories. No festival ground is complete without tents where the religious are reminded of their myths by pious speakers, modestly compensated by fees but richly rewarded by the honor in which they are held.
For millions, the main motivating force of religious practices is still the fear of ambivalent powerful beings. Most Hindus propitiate the meat-eating, sometimes benevolent but largely malevolent deities concerned with man's daily events. Hindus strive to escape the powers of the evil eye; to manipulate those spirits dwelling in wells, trees, stones, water, and ground; to counteract: curses, witchcraft, plague, and cholera. They worship village godlings who may give rain or a bountiful harvest. They make use of astrology, divination, and the reading of omens and auspicious moments. A large variety of purifications and ritual prohibitions, charms, and amulets to ward off any kind of misfortune (including bad luck in lawsuits and examinations) are, in the eyes of the majority, of greater importance than the atman-brahman doctrine. Even the hope of heaven, or the fear of hell, has little vogue in various regions, except among the higher castes. It is difficult to draw a sharp line of distinction between popular Hinduism, the beliefs and practices of more or less Hinduized "external" groups, and Indian tribal religions. Many elements of tribal culture that in a particular region have not been adopted by those recognized as belonging to the Hindu fold are in fact. similar to what has been adopted by Hindus in other areas. Tribal people and outcaste groups are, on the other hand, seem always willing to worship a few more gods or to imitate the rituals of lower-caste Hindus. This process is facilitated by a tendency toward the assimilation of local beliefs by pan-Indian Hinduism. The inheritors of the Little, or regional, traditions accepted Hindu influences such as: vegetarianism, regular fasts, and food restrictions. Most importantly, to imbibe the ideas embodied in religious and mythological narratives. Thus, various tribal or outcaste groups have a religion with affinities to a simple Saivism without sacred books or regular liturgy. While many Hindus pursue their approach to the divine individually, corporate worship in families, villages, and sects is far more common in some castes. As members of a joint family, they take part in the domestic cult and ritually express family solidarity at such critical points as mourning or marriage. As members of a village community, they take part in its particular cult, which is a collective action of that community. Different castes, however, establish their own rituals in order to foster unity and to differentiate themselves from others. Spiritual reality is complex: while many women may address local spirits, family ancestors, and goddesses of disease; some of the men may embrace monotheistic ideas. Marriage and other ceremonies combine ancient Sanskritic rites with popular and local features. Even members of the higher classes may accept the entire range of belief in many regions. The upper castes everywhere, however, have a certain amount of Sanskritic ritual in common; but even those who are devoted to Siva, for example, do not necessarily constitute a Saiva community. The bhakti
movements have long influenced the religious feelings of their followers,
and religious problems are discussed by people of all professions and
intellectual levels. In the east and northeast, where Saktism is dominant, believers admit that virtue will improve their lot in a subsequent existence. Still, they do not seem to strive for final union with the Supreme Being. Here, and elsewhere, a workaday religion meant to meet the requirements of everyday life exists alongside a higher religion understood only by the Brahmans, who are called on to officiate on important occasions. Practices based on the belief in scapegoats, ritual nudity, and black magic are also widespread. The whole of peninsular India is mainly devoted to: Saivism; , devotional forms of Vaishnavism; , and the worship of the goddess in her many forms. A striking
feature in the religion of South India is the propitiation of, usually,
local female village deities .to whom is dedicated a simple shrine or
other sacred place. Most of their shrines are simple, small brick
buildings or rough stone platforms under a tree. Offerings of rice, fruit,
and flowers may be made every day or on fixed days;. Although there often
is a fixed annual festival, it is not uniformly celebrated and no calendar
of festivals is established. These deities are thought to be particularly
competent for dealing with the facts of village life, such as diseases of
the inhabitants and their cattle. Sacred snakes, especially cobras, are also given offerings,. This is done partly to avert danger from these reptiles; partly to propitiate them with the aim of obtaining rain, fertility, or children. To that end women worship snake stones (nagalkals) or erect stone figures of cobras. The greater festivals are, generally speaking, either celebrated at the chief agricultural seasons or connected with the expulsion of malign powers. Folk and Tribal MythsThe concept of avatar (literally "descent"), issues from the belief that in times of trouble a god, notably Vishnu, incarnates himself as a man or hero to set matters right. Such a concept provides the opportunity for identifying a local deity (like Viaaoba, above) with an all-Indian god like Vishnu. The concept may also extend to the worship of very local hydrophanes (manifestations of the sacred; e.g., South Indian Vaishnavism accepts "icon-incarnation" [ arcavatara], in which Vishnu "descends" into a local icon.. Rituals, Social Practices, And Institutions - Sacrifice And WorshipAlthough the Vedic fire rituals were largely replaced in Puraaic and modern Hinduism by image worship and other forms of devotionalism, many Hindu rites can still be traced back to Vedism. By and large, however, the surviving rituals from the Vedic period tend to be most clearly observed at the level of the domestic (gahya) ritual. Domestic RitesThe Vedic householder was expected to maintain a domestic fire into which he made his offerings. Most Hindus have employed Brahmans for the administration of the "sacraments" ( samskara). The samskaras include all important life-cycle events, from conception to cremation, and are the main constituents of the domestic ritual. The sacraments are transitional rites intended to make a person fit for a certain purpose or for the next stage in life by removing taints (sins), or, by generating fresh qualities. If the blemishes incurred in this or previous lives are not removed, the person is impure and will acquire no reward for any ritual acts. The sacraments, while sanctifying critical moments, are therefore deemed necessary for unfolding a person's latent capacities for development.. Samskaras: Rites of PassageIn modern times
most samskaras (with the exceptions of impregnation, initiation, and
marriage) have in many areas fallen into disuse or are performed in an
abridged or simplified form without Vedic mantras or a priest. Wedding
ceremonies, the most important of all, have not only
remained elaborate,and often very expensive,but have also incorporated
various elements, among others, propitiations and expiations,that are not
indicated in the oldest sources. There is variance in accordance with
local customs or family or caste traditions. Nevertheless,the following
practices are usually considered essential: Two of the
ancient forms of marriage have remained in vogue: The traditional funeral method is cremation (a family affair). Burial is being reserved for those who have not been sufficiently purified by samskaras (i.e., children) and those who no longer need the ritual fire to be conveyed to the hereafter, for example,ascetics who have renounced all earthly concerns. An important and meritorious complement of the funeral offices is the sraddha ceremony, in which food is offered to Brahmans for the benefit of the deceased. Many people are still solicitous to perform this rite at least once a year even when they no longer engage in any of the five obligatory daily offerings. Daily OfferingsThere are five
obligatory offerings: The morning and
evening adorations (sandhya), being a very important duty of the
traditional householder, are mainly Vedic in character, but they have, by
the addition of Puraic and Tantric elements, become lengthy rituals.
Image worship in sectarian Hinduism takes place both in small shrines in each house and in the temple. Many Hindu authorities claim that regular temple worship to one of the deities of the devotional cults procures the same results for the worshiper as did the performance of one of the great Vedic sacrifices,. One who provides the patronage for the construction of a temple is called a "sacrificer" (yajamana). TemplesThe erection of
a temple, which belongs to whoever paid for it or to the community that
occupies it, is a meritorious deed recommended to anyone desirous of
heavenly reward. From the point
of view of construction there is no striking difference between Saiva and
Vaishnava sanctuaries. They are easily distinguished by the image or
symbols in the centre, the images on the walls, the symbol fixed on the
finial (crowning ornament) at the top, say,Siva's bull, Nandi, or Vishnu's
bird, Garua. they aare iront of the entrance. Hindu worship (puja) consists essentially of an invocation, a reception, and the entertainment of God as a royal guest. It normally consists of 16 "attendances" (upacara): an invocation by which the omnipresent God is invited to direct his attention to the particular worship. Then there is the offering of a seat, water (for washing the feet, for washing the hands, and for rinsing the mouth), a bath, a garment, a sacred thread, perfumes, flowers, incense, a lamp, food, and homage; and a circumambulation of the image and dismissal by God. The first phase of worship is the reverential opening of the temple door and the adoration of the powers presiding over it: The divine powers whose images are carved in the doorjambs promote the process of transmutation without which man cannot even enter into the presence of God, whose image is established in the cella (garbhagha). This image is honored with gifts, notably flowers, fruit, and perfumes. Small portions of the consecrated food (prasada) are given to visiting worshipers. The offering into the fire (homa - of Vedic origin) has been retained in nearly all extended puja ceremonies. The main purpose of the rites is the meditative identification of the worshiper with the divine Presence followed by the gradual enactment of the development and the realization of the union of the worshiper's soul and God. Those denominations (both Srivaiavas and Saivas) that adopted Tantric practices believe that God comes, during these ceremonies, also God comes out of the worshiper's heart or that the worshiper's soul leaves his body to reach God's feet in heaven, to descend from there in a new body that is meditatively created. Saivas transform themselves into Siva by means of complicated preparatory rites, because, they say, "Siva alone can worship Siva." Many Vaishnavas emphasize that puja is meant to propitiate God disinterestedly. Saiva RitesSaivism, though inclined in doctrinal matters to adoptive inclusivism, inculcates some fundamental lines of conduct: One should worship one's spiritual preceptor (guru) as God himself; follow his path; consider him to be present in one; and dissociate oneself from all opinions and practices that are incompatible with the Saiva creed. Yet some of Siva's devotees also worship other gods. This isbecause dharma leads to happiness, there is no distinction between sacred and secular duties. All deeds are performed as services to God and with the conviction that all life is sacred and God-centered. A devout way of living and a non-emotional mysticism are thus much recommended. Kashmir Saivism developed the practice of a simple method of salvation: by the recognition (pratyabhijña),direct, spontaneous - technique-free, but full of bhakti,of one's identity with God. Vaishnava RitesThe day of the faithful Srivaiava Brahman is usually devoted to five pursuits: purificatory rites, collecting the requisites for worship, acts of worship, study and contemplation of the meaning of the sacred books, and meditative concentration on the Lord's image. Lifelong obligations include the performance of sacrifices and other rites, restraint of the senses, fasting and soberness, worship, recitation of the scriptures, and visits to sacred places. In addition, to those who aspire to liberation, Ramanuja recommends concentration on God, a virtuous way of living, and insensibility to luck and misfortune. According to Madhva (c. 1199– c. 1278), a faithful observance of all regulations of daily conduct,including bathing, breath control, etc.,will contribute to eventual success in the quest for liberation. Devout Vaishnavas are inclined to emphasize God's omnipotence and his far reaching grace. They attach much value to the repeated murmuring of his name or sacred formulas (japa) and to the praise and commemoration of his deeds as a means of self-realization and of unification with his essence. Special stress is laid on ahimsa as a virtue.
Hindu festivals
are combinations of religious ceremonies, semi-ritual spectacles, worship,
prayer, lustrations, and processions (to set something sacred in motion
and to extend its power throughout a certain region). There is music,
dances (which by their rhythm have a compelling force). Magical
acts,participants throw fertilizing water during the Holi festival along
with colored powder at each other. Eating, drinking, lovemaking,
licentiousness, feeding the poor, and other activities of a religious or
traditional character are a part of the excitement. The original functions
of these activities are clear from ancient literature and anthropological
research. They are intended to purify, avert malicious influences, renew
society, bridge over critical moments, and stimulate or resuscitate the
vital powers of nature (hence the term utsava, meaning both the generation
of power and a festival). Because such festivals relate to the cyclical
life of nature, they are supposed to prevent it from stagnating. These
cyclic festivals,which may last for many days,continue to be celebrated
throughout India. Such festivals
refresh the mood of the participants, further the consciousness of their
own power, and help to compensate for their sensations of fear and
inferiority concerning the unknown forces of nature. Such mixtures of
worship and pleasure require the participation of the entire community and
create harmony among its members, even if not all participants are now
aware of the original character of the festival. There are also
innumerable festivities in honor of specific gods, celebrated by
individual temples, villages, and religious communities. Like
processions, pilgrimages (tirthayatra ) to holy rivers (tirtha) and other
places have ancient origins Even now they are one of the most remarkable
aspects of Indian religious life. Many sections of the Puraas eulogize
temples and the sacredness of places situated in beautiful scenery or wild
solitude (especially the Himalayas). The whole of
India, and especially Kurukshetra (presumed to be the scene of the great
war portrayed in the Mahabharata) in the northwest, is considered holy
ground that offers everyone the opportunity to reach emancipation. The
number of places of pilgrimage of regional significance amounts to many
hundreds, but some of them (Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar, Varanasi
[Benares], Kanchipuram, Ujjain, and Dwarka) have for many centuries
possessed exceptional holiness. The reason for
such sanctity derives from their location on the bank of a holy river,
especially of the Ganges. There are connections with legendary figures of
antiquity said to have lived here and there. Many places are sacred to a
specific god; the district of Mathura, for example, encompasses many
places of pilgrimage connected with the Krishna legends. Visits to holy
places may bestow special benefits upon pilgrims. Temples or ponds
dedicated to Surya (the Sun) are visited in order to recover from leprosy,
other places to escape from astrological threats. Pilgrimages to Gaya
(Bihar state) ,are undertaken for the sake of the welfare of deceased
ancestors. In most cases,
however, the devotee hopes for worldly rewards (health, wealth, and
children) or for spiritual rewards such as deliverance from sin or
pollution, preservation of religious merit, rebirth in a heaven, or even
emancipation. The last prospect is held out to those who, when death is
near, travel to Varanasi to die near the Ganges. On special
occasions that augur well, or, in contrast augur a worsening of fate such
as a solar eclipse, the devout crowds increase enormously. Most important
shrines also organize gatherings (melas), which are partly fairs, partly
religious demonstrations. These holy quests are undertaken by individuals
or groups in order to discharge a vow or to please a god, to confirm the
devotees in their faith, and provide them with an opportunity for
spiritual retreat. Also they may serve to bring their inner life nearer to
a state of perfection. The festivals along with the pilgrimages have
contributed much to the spread of religious ideas and the cultural
unification and cohesion of India. Some observers
have claimed that Hinduism is as much a way of social life as it is a
religion. The caste system, which has organized Indian society for
millennia, is thoroughly legitimated by and intertwined with Hindu
religious doctrine and practice. Although it is
not certain whether a society limited to four classes was ever more than a
theoretical ideal, there is a sense in which the castes map out
socio-religious reality. Such is evident from the Puru?a hymn (Rig-Veda
10.90), in which the statement that the Brahman was the Puru?a's mouth,
the nobleman (K?atriya) his arms, the Vaisya his thighs, and the Sudra his
feet, gives an idea of their functions and mutual relations. The Brahmans,
whatever their worldly avocations, claim to be by virtue of their birth a
perpetual incarnation of the dharma. They are guardians and dispensers of
divine power; entitled to teach the Veda; do sacrificing for others; and
to accept gifts and subsistence. The term alms is misleading, and the
dak?i?a offered at the end of a rite to a Brahman officiant is not a fee
but an oblation through which the rite is made complete. Brahmans are held
to be the highest of all human beings because of their preeminence; the
superiority of their origin; their sanctification through the samskaras
(rites of passage), and their observance of restrictive rules. The main duty of
the nobility (the Katriyas) is to protect the people, which of the
commoners (the Vaisyas) to tend cattle, to trade, and to cultivate land.
Even if a king (theoretically of Katriya descent) was not of noble
descent, such an upholder of dharma was clothed with divine authority. He
was consecrated by means of a complex and highly significant ritual; he
was Indra and other gods (deva) incarnate. The emblems or paraphernalia of
his office represent sovereign authority. The white umbrella of state is,
for example, the residence of Sri-Lak?mi, the goddess of fortune.
All three higher
classes, claiming Aryan descent, had to sacrifice and to study the Veda,
although the responsibilities of the Vaisyas in sacred matters were less
demanding. While this
tri-partition seems, in the main, to have been inherited from
Indo-European times, the fourth class (the Sudras), whose sole duty it was
"to serve meekly" (Manava Dharmasastra 1.91) The Sudras
(other classes), are partly descended from the subjugated non-Aryans, a
fact that accounts for their many disabilities and exclusion from
religious status. According to Hindu tradition, the Veda should not be
studied in their presence, but they may listen to the recitation of epics
and Puranas. They are
permitted to perform the five main acts of worship (without Vedic mantras)
and undertake observances. Yet, even today they maintain various
ceremonies of their own, carried out without Brahmanic assistance. Still,
a distinction is often made among Sudras. Some are purer and have a more
correct behavior and way of living than others. The former tend to
assimilate with higher castes. The latter to rank with the lowest in the
social scale, which, often called ca??ala s, were at an early date
sweepers, bearers of corpses, or charged with other impure occupations.
Ritual purity was indeed an important criterion; impure conduct and
neglect of Veda study and the rules regarding forbidden food might suffice
to stigmatize a "twice-born man" as a Sudra. On the other hand, in later
times the trend of many communities has been toward integrating all Sudras
into the Brahmanic system. The Brahmans, who have far into modern times
remained, on the whole, a respected, traditional, and sometimes
intellectual upper class, were generally (until the 1930s) much in demand
because of their knowledge of rites and traditions. Although K?atriya rank
is claimed by many whose title is one of function or creation rather than
of inheritance, this class is now rare in many regions. Moreover, for a
considerable time none of the four varnas represented anything other than
a series of hierarchically arranged groups of castes. The origin of
the caste system is not known with certainty. Hindus account for the
proliferation of the castes (jatis, literally "births") by the subdividing
of the four classes, or varnas, due to intermarriage (which is prohibited
in the Hindu works on dharma). Modern theorists, however, tend to assume
that castes arose from differences in family ritual practices, racial
distinctions, and occupational differentiation and specialization. Many
modern scholars also doubt whether the simple varna system was ever more
than a theoretical socio-religious ideal and have emphasized that the
highly complex division of Hindu society into nearly 3,000 castes and
sub-castes was probably in place even in ancient times. If caste is an
explanation of stratus it seems to be a reason without explanation.
In general, a
caste is a hereditary group of families, bearing a common name; often
claiming a common descent; as a rule professing to follow the same
hereditary calling and gene pool. They cling to the same customs,
especially regarding purity, meals, and marriages; and are often further
divided into smaller endogamous circles. Furthermore,
tribes, guilds, or religious communities characterized by particular
customs,for example, the Lingayats,could be regarded as castes, as well.
The status of castes varies in different localities. Although social
mobility is possible, the mutual relationship of castes is hierarchically
determined: local Brahman groups occupy the highest place, and differences
in ritual purity are the main criteria for positioning in the hierarchy.
Most impure are the so-called untouchables, or, to use modern names, the
"exterior or scheduled" castes, which, however, have among themselves
numerous divisions, each of which regards itself as superior to
others. Traditional
Hindus are inclined to emphasize that the ritual impurity and
"untouchability" inherent in these groups does not essentially differ from
that proper to mourners or menstruating women for the period of time. .
This, and the fact that some exterior group or another might rise in
estimation and become an interior one, or, that individual outcastes might
be well-to-do or even wealthy, does not alter the social status "fact"
that the spirit of exclusiveness was in the course of time carried to
extremes. The scheduled
castes were subjected to various socio-religious disabilities before
mitigating tendencies helped bring about reform. After independence,
social discrimination was prohibited, and the practice of untouchability
was made a punishable offense (it was not abolished, however).
Scheduled castes
were barred from the use of temples and other religious institutions and
from public schools. These groups also had many disabilities in relations
with private persons. From the traditional Hindu point of view, this
social system is a necessary complement to the principles of dharma,
karma, and samsara. Corresponding to hells and heavenly regions in the
hereafter, the castes are the mundane, social frame within which karma is
manifested. A low social status is the inevitable result of sins in a
former life. However, by virtue and merit this lowly live can be followed
by a better position in the next existence.
Those members of
the various denominations who abandon all worldly attachment enter an
"inner circle" or "order". They seek a life of devotion and adopt or
develop particular vows and observances, a common cult, and some form of
initiation. Generally
speaking, Hindus are free to join an order or inner circle. Once they have
joined it; they must submit to its rites and way of living. The initiation
( dika ), a sort of purification or consecration involves a transformation
of the aspirant's personality. It is regarded as a complement to, or even
a substitute for, the previous initiation ceremony (the upanayana) that
all twice-born Hindus undergo at adolescence), still it strikingly
resembles that ceremony. Such religious groups integrate ancient,
widespread ideas and customs of initiation into the framework of either
the Vaishnava or Saiva patterns of Hinduism. Vaishnavism
emphasizes their character as an introduction to a life of devotion and as
an entrance into closer contact with God, although happiness, knowledge, a
long life, and a prospect of freedom from karma are also among the ideals
to which they aspire. Saivas are
convinced of the absolute necessity of initiation for anyone desiring
final liberation and require an initiation in accordance with their
rituals. All communities agree that the authority to initiate belongs only
to a qualified spiritual guide (guru), usually a Brahman, who has
previously received the special guru-dik?a (initiation as a teacher) and
is often regarded as representing God himself. The postulant is sometimes
committed to a probationary period for training in yoga mysticism, and/or
for instruction in the esoteric meaning of the scriptures. The initiate
receives a devotional name and is given the distinctive mantras of the
community, which, because they are sacred, must never be
misused. There are many
complicated forms of initiation: the Vaishnavas differentiate between the
members of the four classes; the Saivasand Tantrists take into account the
natural aptitude and competency of the recipients and distinguish between
first-grade initiates, who obtain access to God, and higher-grade
initiates, who remain in a state of holiness. The initiate
guided by his guru may apply himself to yoga (a "methodic exertion" of
body and mind) in order to attain, through mortification, concentration,
and meditation, a higher state of consciousness in which he may find the
supreme knowledge, achieve spiritual autonomy, and realize his oneness
with the Highest or ultimate goal.. Yoga may be
atheistic or combined with various philosophical or religious currents.
Every denomination has attempted to implement yogic practices on a
theoretical basis derived from its own teachings. There are many different
forms of yoga, and the practices vary according to the stage of
advancement of the adepts. All serious yogis, however, agree in
disapproving the use of yogic methods for worldly
purposes. The typical
Hindu ascetic ( sadhu) usually wears a distinctive mark (pu??ra) on his
forehead and often carries some symbol of his religion. If he is a
Vaishnava he might possess a discus (chakra) and a conch shell (sakha),
replicas of Vishnu's flaming weapon and his instrument of beneficent power
and omnipresent protection. Alternatively, it could be a salagrama stone
or a tulasi plant, which represent, respectively, Vishnu's essence and
that of his spouse Lak?mi. If he is a
Saiva, he might impersonate Siva and carry a trident (trisula), denoting
empire and the irresistible force of transcendental reality. He may wear a
small lingam; and or carry a human skull, showing that he is beyond the
terror inspired by the transitory nature of the world; or, He could smear
his body with apotropaic (supposed to avert evil) and consecratory ashes.
These emblems are sacred objects of worship because the divine presence,
when invoked by mantras, is felt to be in them. The attitude
toward asceticism has always been ambivalent. On the one hand, there is a
genuine regard for hermits and wandering ascetics and a desire to gain
spiritual merit by feeding such religious mendicants. On the other hand,
the fact that fringe members of society may find a sort of respectable
status among Saiva ascetics often led to a decline in the moral reputation
of that group and its adherents. The structure of
Indian temples, the outward form of images, and indeed the very character
of Indian art are largely determined by religion and their traditional
view of the world. Religious theology penetrated the other realms of
culture and welds them into a homogeneous whole. Indian art is
highly symbolic. The much-developed ritual- religious symbolism
presupposes the existence of a spiritual reality that, being in constant
touch with phenomenal reality, may make its presence and influence felt
and can also be approached through the symbols that belong to both
spheres. The production
of art objects of symbolic value is therefore more than a technique. The
artisan must model a cult image after the ideal prototype that appears in
his mind (in certain canonical forms) only when he has brought himself to
a state of supra-normal consciousness (an altered state). After undergoing
a process of spiritual transformation himself, he also transforms the
material in to an image that is a receptacle of divine power. Like the
artisan, the worshiper (sadhaka, "the one who wishes to attain the goal")
must grasp the esoteric meaning of a statue, picture, or pot and identify
his or her self with the power residing in it. The usual offering, a
handful of flowers, is the vehicle used to convey the worshiper's
"life-breath" into the external image, which has already been transformed
into an adequate internal vision of the same divine power. If they know how
to handle the symbols, the worshipers,who must achieve their object
themselves and cannot come into contact with God unless they insistently
invoke him. They have at their disposition an instrument for utilizing the
possibilities lying in the depths of their own subconscious as well as a
key to the mysteries of the forces dominating the world. The general term
for ritual diagrams as an "instrument for controlling" is yantra. In
addition, yantra denotes in a wider sense cult images, pictures, and other
such aids to worship. Yantra represents some aspect of the divine and
enables devotees to worship it immediately within their hearts while
identifying themselves with it. Conceptually, a
mandala does not differ from a yantra although it is visually more
complicated. Both are drawn during a highly complex ritual in a purified
and ritually consecrated place. The meaning and the use of both are
similar, and they may be permanent or provisional. A mandala, may be
delineating a consecrated place and protecting it against disintegrating
forces represented in demoniac cycles. It is the geometric, curvilinear
projection of the universe, spatially and temporally reduced to its
essential plan. A mandala represents in a schematic form the whole drama
of disintegration and reintegration, and the adept can use it to identify
with the forces governing these. For example, in temple ritual, a vase is
employed to receive the divine power so that it can be projected into the
drawing and then into the person of the adept. Thus the mandala becomes a
support for meditation, an instrument to provoke visions of the unseen.
One of the most
common objects of worship, whether in temples or in the household cult, is
the lingam (phallus). Often much stylized and an austere rather than
literally sexual symbol, erect and representing the cosmic pillar, it
emanates its all-producing energy to the four quarters of the universe.
As the symbol of
male creative energy it is frequently combined with its female counterpart
( yoni), the latter forming the base from which the lingam rises. Although
the lingam originally may have had no relation to Siva, it has from
ancient times been regarded as symbolizing Siva's creative energy and is
widely worshiped as his fundamental form. The beauty of
cult objects contributes to their force as sacred instruments: their
ornamentation facilitates the process of inviting the divine power into
them. Statues of gods are not intended to imitate ideal human forms but to
express the supernatural. A divine figure is a "likeness" (pratima), a
temporary benevolent or terrifying expression of some aspect of a god's
nature. Iconographic handbooks attach great importance to the ideology
behind images and reveal, for example, that Vishnu's eight arms stand for
the four cardinal and intermediate points of the compass and that his four
faces, illustrating the concept of God's four foldness, typify his
strength, knowledge, lordship, and potency. The emblems express the
qualities of their bearers, e.g., a deadly weapon symbolizes destructive
force, many-headedness omniscience. Much use is made of gestures (mudras),
conventional devices for denoting activities that express an idea. Thus,
the raised right hand, in the "fear-not" gesture (abhaya-mudra), bestows
protection. Every iconographic detail has its own symbolic value. It helps
devotees to direct their energy to a deeper understanding of the various
aspects of the divine and to proceed from external to internal worship.
For many Indians, an installed and consecrated image becomes a container
of concentrated divine energy. According to Hindu theists, it is an
instrument for ennobling the worshiper who realizes God's presence in
it.
Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism originated out of the same milieu: the social
circles of world-renouncers of the 6th century BC. All these historically
derivative trlgiond share certain non-Vedic practices (such as
renunciation itself) and various yogic meditative techniques; along ;with
doctrines (such as the belief in rebirth and the goal of liberation from
perpetual transmigration). Still, they differ in the respect that they
accord to the Vedic tradition. Virtually all Hindus affirm the sacredness
and authority of the Veda; Buddhists and Jains do not. Therefore they are
regarded as less than orthodox by Hindus. Although
Buddhism did not interfere with Hindu customs and usages in that it
allowed its adherents to approach Hindu or local supernatural powers for
immediate favors. Hindu criticism of Buddhism came mainly from Brahman
philosophers who opposed its adherents because they rejected the authority
of the Veda , the Brahmans and the doctrine of the atman (soul).
Furthermore Buddhists admitted persons of any age and caste to monastic
life. The spread of Buddhism was often regarded as an indication of
degeneration of holy precepts. In the course of time, the Buddha was
recognized as an incarnation of Vishnu. But this was no accommodation or
compromise often in that Hindus qualified the idea by the adding that
Vishnu assumed this form to mislead and destroy the enemies of the Veda,.
This avatar is rarely worshiped. Buddhist emblems also were often ascribed
to Vishnu or Siva. Some Buddhist shrines have remained partly under the
supervision of Hindu ascetics and are visited by pilgrims notwithstanding
their much neglected condition. After the rise
of scholarly studies of Buddhism in the West and the archaeological
discoveries and restorations, beginning at the end of the 19th century,
Indians became more aware of the Indian origin of Buddhism. The Republic
of India adopted the Buddhist emperor Asoka's lion capital, marking the
place of Buddha's first teaching, as its national emblem. The Buddha
jubilee in 1956 was an occasion for enthusiastic celebrations. The number
of Indian Buddhists has again increased, due mainly to the conversion of
persons of low social rank who hope for higher social status as Buddhists
than they were afforded as Hindus. With Jainism,
which has remained an Indian religion, Hinduism has much in common,
especially in social institutions and ritual life. Nowadays Hindus tend to
consider it a Hindu sect. Many Jains are inclined to fraternization. The
points of difference,e.g., a stricter ahimsa practice and the absence of
sacrifices for the deceased in Jainism,do not give offense to orthodox
Hindus. Islam was and is
so different from Hinduism in creed and institutions that it neither
absorbed nor has been powerful enough to make India a Muslim country.
Still, the religious situation created by the presence of Islam's numerous
adherents always has explosive potentialities: Muslims do not respect
bovine life and regard Hindu cult practices as objectionable idolatry.
Although Indian
Muslims, with few exceptions, are of native descent, they are
theoretically outcastes. Therefore, dealings between Hindus and Muslims
must remain restricted by formal rules. However, as with Christians, they
are considered less polluting than the Hindu lower castes. The Islamic way
of life meets with opposition.. Orthodox Muslims and Hindus do not
ordinarily intermarry or dine together. This situation has had acute and
even devastating consequences. Still, it does vary somewhat from region to
region, from village to village, and from class to class. Very often
mutual differences are accepted. Although they repudiate caste, Muslims
often observe it in practice, and surprisingly, some have even retained
their original Indian caste organization after their conversion to
Islam. Throughout
centuries of close proximity and daily interaction, Hindus and Muslims
have made efforts to accommodate the existence of each others religion
within their own. One manifestation of such syncretism occurred among
mystically inclined groups who believed that the one God, or "the
universal principle," was the same regardless of whether it was called
Allah or Brahman. Various syntheses between the two religions, including
Sikhism and other movements that emphasize non-sectarianism, have arisen
in North India. Those who, like
Gandhi, could not understand the intolerance of orthodox Islam sympathized
with moderation and eclecticism. Within such groups most of the educated
class, however, have always remained aware of the cleavage. To the
Muslims,who, as part of an ecumenical community stretching over large
parts of Asia and Africa, are concerned about the political and religious
crisis of Islam since the late 19th century. It is said that the collapse
of the Mughals after the Indian Mutiny (1857–58) was a severe blow that
worsened relations with Hindus. Unfortunately, this is particularly true
because anti-Muslim tendencies won ground after the renascent Hinduism in
the 19th century and thereafter. At the same time, Muslims became
self-assertive and even more determined to maintain their distinctive
position. After the partition of the sub-continent into India and
Pakistan,partly based on religious differences,and independence (1947),
the political controversies between India and Pakistan constituted a
further very serious complication for relations between the religions. The
secular political confrontations over issues such as Kashmir are fomenting
divisive tendencies. There is a lack of tolerance. The relations
between Hinduism and Christianity have been shaped by unequal balances of
political power and cultural influences. Although small communities of
Christians have lived in South India since the middle of the 1st
millennium, Christianity was widely introduced into the Indic subcontinent
only in modern times by missionaries working under the auspices of British
colonialism and imperialism. The Christian
denigration of Hindu beliefs and practices,such as image worship and widow
burning,provoked a Hindu response. Beginning in the 19th century and
continuing to the present, a movement that might be called neo-Vedanta has
emphasized the monism of certain Upanishads. It has been necessary to ,
decry "popular" Hindu "degenerations" such as the worship of idols, and
acted as proactive agents of social reform, modernization, to seek an
intelligent rational dialogue between the prejudiced Christians and other
intrusive world religions. The relations
between Hindus and Christians, then, have been complicated. Many Hindus
are ready to accept the ethical teachings of the Gospels, particularly the
Sermon on the Mount (whose influence on Gandhi is well-known) but reject
the theological superstructure. Many adherents of bhakti movements,the
Christian influence on which has been grossly exaggerated,feel that the
Christian conceptions, which are regarded as a kind of bhakti, do not
realize in God the multiplicity of human relations of love and service.
Educated Hindus, though they assimilate some Christian ideas, often regard
missionary propaganda as an attack on their national genius and
time-honored institutions. They take offense at what they regard as the
disrespectful utterances of Christian missionary literature. They are
averse to the methods of organization, the reliance on asserted
authorities, and the exclusiveness of Islam and Christianity, Hindus
consider these attributes to be obstacles to harmonious cooperation. They
subscribe to Gandhi's opinion that missionaries should confine their
activities to humanitarian service. Since independence, conversion has
indeed been viewed with disfavor by many influential Indians, who often
also find in Hinduism what might be attractive in Christianity.
There are
Movements that advocate a Hindu theism designed to rival Islam and
Christianity. For example, , like the Arya Samaj, they are making serious
efforts to reconvert Christians to the Hindu community. Hindus tolerate
the proximity of Christian converts, even if they transgress Hindu taboos,
provided they form a more or less separate community. Thus Christians
often form castes or endogamous bodies analogous to castes. They sometimes
are even admitted to temples to which untouchable Hindus have no entrance.
In Malabar, due to their high economic position, Christians came to be
practically equal with Brahmans. Nationalism has challenged the more
serious-minded Indian Christians to express the genius of their faith in
Indian modes and patterns. Since 1921 this has led to the emergence of
Christian ashrams in the south. The dialogue between Hinduism and
Christianity is more or less institutionalized at Bangalore in Karnataka
state, where the Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society
is located. Its bulletin offers an opportunity for discussion between, for
example, Christians and supporters of the Ramakrishna Mission.
From their small
coastal settlements in southern India, the Portuguese promoted Roman
Catholic missionary activity and made converts, most of whom were of low
caste; The majority of Hindu castes were unaffected. Small Protestant
missions operated from the Danish factories of Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu
and Serampore in Bengal, but they were even less influential. The British East
India Company, conscious of the disadvantages of unnecessarily
antagonizing its Indian subjects, excluded all Christian missionary
activity from its territories for years. Indeed, the company continued the
patronage accorded by indigenous rulers to many Hindu temples and forbade
its Indian troops to embrace Christianity. However this
truce was not to be. The growing evangelical conscience in England brought
this policy to an end with the renewal of the company's charter in 1813.
The company's policy then became one of strict impartiality in matters of
religion, and missionaries were allowed to be -Onward Christian Solidiers
- going to work throughout its territory. Thus, Christian ideas began to
spread with the help of British colonialism and imperialism.
The pioneer of modern reform was Ram Mohun Roy. His intense belief in strict monotheism and in the evils of image worship began early and probably was derived from Islam, because at first he had no knowledge of Christianity. He later learned English and in 1814 settled in Calcutta, where he was prominent in the movement for encouraging education of a Western type. His final achievement was the foundation of the Brahma Samaj ("Society of God") in 1828. Roy outwardly remained a Hindu, wearing the sacred cord and keeping most of the customs of the orthodox Brahman; but his theology was surprisingly un-Indian. He was chiefly inspired by 18th-century Deism (rational belief in a transcendent creator god) and Unitarianism (belief in God's essential oneness). Also, some of his writing suggests that he was aware of the religious ideas of the Freemasons (a secret fraternity that espouses some Deistic concepts). Several of his friends were members of a Masonic lodge in Calcutta. His ideas of the afterlife are obscure, and it is possible that he did not believe in the doctrine of transmigration. Roy was one of the first higher-class Hindus to visit Europe, where he was much admired by the intelligentsia of Britain and France. After Ram Mohun Roy's death, Debendranath Tagore became leader of the Brahma Samaj, and under his guidance a more mystical note was sounded by the society. The third great leader of the Brahma Samaj, Kasha Thunder Sen., was a vigorous reformer who completely abolished caste in the Sam and admitted women. As his theology became more syncretistic and eclectic, a schism developed, and the more conservative faction remained under the leadership of Tagore. Keshab's faction, the Brahmo Samaj of India, adopted as its scripture a selection of theistic texts gathered from all the main religions; at the same time, it became more Hindu in its worship, employing the sa?kirtana (hymn-singing session) and nagara-kirtana (street procession) of the Caitanya sect. In 1881 Keshab founded the Church of the New Dispensation (Naba Bidhan) for the purpose of establishing the truth of all the great religions in an institution that he believed would replace them all. When he died in 1884, the Brahmo Samaj began to decline, but it produced the greatest poet of modern India, Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941), son of the second of its great leaders, Debendranath Tagore. Arya SamajA reformer of different character was Dayan and Sarasvati., Though trained as a yogi, he steadily lost faith in yoga and many other aspects of Hinduism. After traveling widely as an itinerant preacher, he founded the Arya Samaj in 1875. It rapidly gained ground in the west of India. Dayanand rejected image worship, sacrifice, and polytheism and claimed to base his doctrines on the four Vedas as the eternal word of God. Later Hindu scriptures were judged critically, and many of them were believed to be completely evil. The Arya Samaj did much to encourage Hindu nationalism, but it did not disparage the knowledge of the West, and it established many schools and colleges. Among its members was the revolutionary Lala Lajpat Rai who was allied with Gandhi. Despite the fact
that India is stratified by age old hierarchies, democracy has put down
deep roots. Perhaps, the life of K. R. Narayana suggests there is an
answer to the conundrum of caste-and-class. Today, there is some vertical
social mobility. K. R. Narayanan despite the fact he was born into a group
of "outcastes" at the very bottom of the social ladder. He was a dalits
the modern word for untouchable. Yet, he rose to the top, serving the
country as President from 1997 - 2002. The dalits are not even one of four
main divisions of caste. Born an outcaste, his brother recalled finding
him in tears due to the many humiliations I posed by members of the castes
when his school fees were overdue because of poverty. A man of brilliance
and great talent he went to college on a scholarship. But, he was refused
employment as a teacher because of caste. Fortunately, for India, Narayana
had the stubbornness born of a lifelong fight against injustice. His
friends remember him for his gentleness and courtesy. Discrimination on
the grounds of caste is now illegal. There is affirmative action. At the
bottom of the heap exclusion of the dalits from places where the upper
castes worship, eat, drink and are enforced. The manner in which the elite
of the upper castes parade the small progress of the untouchables, the
dalits is clear sign of the arrogance and haughty attitude of the upper
castes. Though Narayanan was doubtless proud of what his lofty status
implied for the dalits, he is disappointed that he will always be
identified as the "first dalits president of India". The End Recommended Web Sites:
Readings & reference cited and hereby acknowledged.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The MeetingHouse and Rev. Dr. James R. Cooper, the author of much of this commentary and compilationgratefully acknowledge that this compilation has used the Encyclopedia Britannica's article on Hinduism as one of theimportant source. All errors, omissions and changes are our own. Copyright Notice©2008 James R. Cooper Cooper
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The history of Hinduism began in India
about 1500 BCE. Although its literature can be traced only to before 1000 BC,
evidence of Hinduism's earlier antecedents is derived from archaeology,
comparative philology, and comparative religion.
Who was Ram Mohun
Roy. His intense belief in strict monotheism and in the evils
of image worship began early and probably was derived from Islam, because
when he started he had no knowledge of Christianity. Later, he learned
English and in 1814 settled in Calcutta, He was prominent in the movement
for encouraging education of a Western type. His final achievement was the
foundation of the Brahma Samaj ("Society of God") in 1828. Roy outwardly
remained a Hindu, wearing the sacred cord and keeping most of the customs
of the orthodox Brahman. But, his theology was certainly un-Indian. He was chiefly inspired by 18th-century Deism
(rational belief in a transcendent creator god) and Unitarianism (belief
in God's essential oneness), but some of his writing suggests that he was
aware of the religious ideas of the Freemasons (a secret fraternity that
espouses some Deistic concepts). His ideas of the afterlife are
obscure. It is possible that he did not believe in the doctrine of
transmigration. Roy was one of the first higher-class Hindus to visit
Europe, where he was much admired by the intelligentsia of Britain and
France.
Although the earliest Hindu text
in Bengali is a mid-15th-century poem about Radha and Krishna, God is said
to yearn for the worshiper's identification with himself, which is his
gift to the wholly purified devotee. The mystical and devotional
possibilities of the Krishna legend are made subservient to religious
practice. Various gradations of bhakti are distinguished, such as awe,
subservience, and parental affection. These are correlated with the
persons of the Krishna legend; the highest and most intimate emotion is
said to be the love of Radha and her girlfriends for Krishna.
Despite the impact
of the West, the propaganda of modern reform movements, and the spread of
education and secularist modernization, Hinduism has changed slowly. For
ordinary Hindus, religion primarily consists of the manual and verbal
performance of rites to promote their private interests. The innumerable
ceremonies, observances, fasts, feasts, pilgrimages, and visits to nearby
temples constitute the essence of religion. There is a great diversity in
folk mythology throughout the entire Indo-Pakistan subcontinent, but these
myths have neither been fully collected nor systematically
studied